Do the current statutory media control and diversity rules in the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 (Cth) (“BSA”) serve the public interest in today’s media environment?

One of the most fundamental aspects of the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 is that it seeks to promote a situation where the Australian media is regulated significantly for the purpose of safeguarding the national broadcasting environment. This bill is essential for in serving the public interest because it provides the necessary allowances and regulations to the type of material that broadcasters can provide for public consumption. One of the most significant aspects of this bill is that it promotes the removal of genre restrictions that would otherwise have hindered the advancement of the Australian media to suit the interests of those individuals in society who would like greater diversity in their programming. Furthermore, in the interests of the public, this bill is also important because it allows commercial broadcasters to have a greater opportunity for multichannelling, which they were previously not allowed to have. This is a significant step because the public has an opportunity to have a wide range of channels to view outside those that are dominated by national broadcasters; meaning that there is a wider variety of information that they can access outside those that are essentially censored by the state. In the contemporary media world, it is a significant step especially considering that a growing number of individuals are developing special interests which can be fulfilled to a greater extent through the presence of more specialized channels whose content that can view and enjoy.

The rapidly advancing media world means that there is need to ensure that the interests of local media are safeguarded and the BSA is an essential aspect of this endeavor. This is mainly because it is through the advancement of commercial media services that it will be possible for locally made content to remain dominant in the market especially considering that there is massive competition from media from other countries, especially the United States. The influence of foreign media can, therefore, be contained through this bill because, while it does not provide any significant restrictions on foreign media, it allows for privately owned local media outlets to ensure that they have a greater share of the market. This is extremely important especially considering that it is through the willingness of the BSA to allow for a reduction in the influence of national broadcasters that it is possible to bring about the competition that is needed to make sure that there is a significant improvement in the quality of programming that is provided locally. Healthy competition in media is a necessary aspect of contemporary society because it makes it possible for broadcasters to make sure that they are able to better connect with their audiences in a bid to find out their interests and work towards the development of content that is closely linked to these interests. The ability of broadcasters to bring about greater diversity is, therefore, safeguarded within this bill because it helps to advance the interests of local broadcasters when it comes to a higher quality of programming while at the same time creating the diversity that is needed to ensure that most of the population in the country is able to receive content that is in line with its interests.

This bill is also essential in the development of an environment where, while commercial broadcasters are provided with greater freedom to operate, those with the potential of promoting content that is harmful to the public will be restricted. Such a situation would make sure that commercial broadcasters have a greater responsibility towards their audiences when it comes to their content. Moreover, through this step, it will be possible for the government to make sure that media content that might prove to be a threat to the public, such as channels that advance the cause of terrorism organizations, are kept out of the public sphere; allowing Australians to live their lives as freely as possible. The need to regulate commercial broadcasters is in the public interest and this can best be done through restriction to the allocation of licenses, as stated in the bill. The BSA provides for greater involvement of the government when it comes to the allocation of broadcasting licenses, with the minister taking a direct hand when it comes to content that might be contrary to the interests of the public. In this way, it will be possible to make sure that the regulation of content in media remains constant while at the same time providing for the advancement of local content in media that promote the Australian way of life.

Khashoggi: Bots feed Saudi support after disappearance By Chris Bell and Alistair Coleman

Suspected bot accounts are attempting to shape the social media narrative following the disappearance of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi.

Arabic hashtags expressing support for de facto Saudi leader Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, condemning news organisation Al Jazeera and urging users to "unfollow enemies of the nation" were among those amplified by the involvement of bot networks alongside genuine users.

Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts.

Mr Khashoggi is missing, presumed dead, after he was seen entering the Saudi consulate in Istanbul on 2 October.

Turkish officials allege the journalist, who had been critical of the Saudi regime, was killed there.

On 14 October, the Arabic hashtag translating as "we all have trust in Mohammed Bin Salman" was among the top global trends, featuring in 250,000 tweets. Additionally, "We have to stand by our leader" was used more than 60,000 times.

On Wednesday, a hashtag translating as "unfollow enemies of the nation" was also highly used, while in the past 24 hours the term "campaign to close Al Jazeera, the channel of deception" has gained traction, used close to 100,000 times on the social network.

Bot networks were used by both sides in an effort to control the conversation on social media during the crisis.

Ben Nimmo, Information Defence Fellow at the Atlantic Council, analysed one of the Arabic-language hashtags with bot involvement.

"Unfollow enemies of the nation" was used in excess of 100,000 times. The vast majority of that came through retweets, which can be a signal of bot activity.

Accounts which had been dormant for a long time were suddenly tweeting again, posting identical or near-identical material to other suspicious accounts.

Others were newly-created or exhibited other characteristics typical of bot accounts.

Attempts to control and manipulate social media conversations have become an increasingly prominent global issue.

On Wednesday, Twitter published more than 10 million tweets from suspected state-backed Russian and Iranian "troll farms".

While US national security chiefs have warned of "a pervasive messaging campaign by Russia to weaken and divide the US".

Cuba: What everyone needs to know

The Cuban starter pack

It has, over the years, become necessary to paint a vivid picture of Cuba from the time when it was still a Spanish colony through to the twenty first century and the struggles which this country and people have had to undergo in order to reach where they are today. It is necessary to use the format of asking questions and coming up with suitable answers to these questions so that a clearer picture of the true history of Cuba, without the bias which it has had to endure from some American writers. The discussion of the early liberation struggles of the people of this country against colonialism, first against Spain, and later against the United States, after the latter was awarded Cuba after winning its war against Spain is also necessary. Cuba had to suffer from decades during which the country was ruled by American backed dictators who suppressed the country’s interests in favor of their sponsors, mainly the United States and companies from this country. It is essential that a clear picture of how Cuba had to suffer land alienation as almost two thirds of the country’s land was either in the hands of private owners from the United States or in that of American corporations.

The events leading to the revolution and the American response to it that led this country to move into the Soviet sphere of influence are a direct result of American policy. The reasons for the success of the revolution despite the fact that it was often challenged by its more powerful neighbor to the north is that the revolution has proven its resilience. In addition, it is pertinent that a criticism of the American policies on Cuba after the revolution and suggestions of what the former could have done differently to ensure that it remained influential within Cuba. The six decades of the revolution should also discussed and this is coupled with a discussion of the circumstances that have ensured its survival to the present and the reasons why it did not collapse as soon as the Soviet Union, which was its main backer, did. One of the most fascinating factors concerning the Cuban revolution is the smooth transition of power from Fidel Castro to his brother Raul, and how the latter has presided over the liberalization of the economy so that the country can not only remain competitive on the world scene, but also for the benefit of the Cuban people.

Cuba: the land of contrast

The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the the people of Cuba since not only their standards of living but also their society changed for the better after the revolution. The revolution has ensured that the Cuban people are aware of each other’s equality and because of this, then they have to treat each other well, like a part of a greater family. This positive attitude towards each other it has enabled all workers within the Cuban economy to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled among the Cubans is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing because it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure. It is through the revolution that the Cubans became, for the first time, a united nation which was not divided by class or by interference from foreign countries such as the United States. It is only after the revolution that the Cubans came to identify their country as their own and this has created a strong nationalist feeling among them that is hard to match anywhere else in the world. The fact that the revolution has managed to survive for this long can be attributed in part to the strong sense of ownership that the Cubans have towards the revolution.

One of the legacies of the revolution is that of the achievement of literacy for all Cubans and because of this, Cuba is currently the only country in the world which has achieved a hundred percent literacy for all its citizens and all Cubans of any age have at least a basic education, a feat which even the United States, a long term rival of the revolution, has yet to achieve. The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women throughout the economy and this has been because of the belief that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is hardly any task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and in addition to the total literacy rate, the Cuban revolution has not only achieved universal healthcare for all its people, but it has also been able to develop one of the best medical healthcare systems in the world, another feat that it has accomplished without the advantages other countries have and despite the American attempts to stifle the revolution through the imposition of the trade embargo. The resilience of the Cuban revolution has also been able to raise the image of its leader, Fidel Castro, who is looked upon as a larger than life personality and who has been a thorn in the side of the United States for over five decades.

The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba and it has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. According to the book, the United States is the biggest threat to the achievements of life which the new order after the revolution has brought for the Cuban people. There has always been a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have, an action which would more likely than not destroy the achievements that have been made by Cuba so far. The obsession with Cuba which has been displayed by successive American administrations shows just how potent the revolution has become and this has been the main reason for the imposition of the trade embargo over this country. The irrational fear of the Cuban revolution by the United States government and the policies which have been adopted against it have ensured that this island nation has not had the opportunity to develop its potential to the fullest. However, despite the hostility from the United States, the Cuban revolution was able to have a lot of influence on the world scene as seen in its involvement in the protection of the government of the newly independent African country of Angola from Apartheid sponsored rebels.

Cuba was able to send more than thirty thousand troops to aid the ailing African nationalist government and it is partially because of this action that part of the military power of the oppressive Apartheid South African regime was destroyed. Furthermore, the Cuban revolution attempted to aid other countries such as Congo and Bolivia in their bid to have their own revolutions, although the latter was not successful. The book comes to the conclusion that the United States has for a long time been unfair towards the revolution through its policies and expresses the desire for better relations with Cuba especially during the Obama administration.

The Cuban Revolution and Gender

A happy Cuban woman

         The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the new man and woman in the workplace. This has allowed people to become aware that they need to treat each other well. Moreover, it has enabled all workers to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled in the workplace is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing; it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure.

       The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women in the place of work. This is because it has ensured that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is no task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and all this is due to the revolution.

The real Cuba

           The most desirable society that can be created in Cuba is one where all people within it are equal, with nobody being either above or beneath the other. Moreover, there should be gender balance in government so that it is no longer just dominated by men. In addition, a society which is just should be created, where everybody is allowed to do what they want so long as what they do does not destroy the aims of the revolution. However, the creation of such a society cannot be achieved unless several threats are dealt with swiftly. One of these is the beginning of a highly paternalistic culture in the society, where one cannot go ahead in life unless he or she is sponsored by somebody powerful in society. The second threat is the temptation to slowly introduce capitalistic features into the country in order to conform to the world economy. This is extremely dangerous because so far, the revolution has been a success and it can, therefore, not be merged with corrupting elements.

More of the real Cuba

           The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba. It has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. This state is, therefore, also the biggest threat to the achievement of life which the new order would bring to the people of Cuba. There is a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have. This, of course, is American propaganda, because there is a larger percentage of people with low standards of living in that country than in Cuba. It is exceedingly urgent for the government and people of Cuba to be wary of such temptations because to submit to them would make all the sacrifices made for the revolution to be useless.

Eddie Mabo

Eddie Mabo was an Australian man who played a crucial role in the recognition of the right of the indigenous people to own the land in the country. He was born in the Torres Strait Islands in 1936 and it was one of his fundamental beliefs that the land upon which he was born belonged to him and his people. An indigenous Australian, he displayed an astute knowledge of the fact that the land upon which he was born was rightfully indigenous, and that the laws that had been instituted by the colonial settlers and their government did the indigenous people a great injustice. For almost a decade, this man fought for the rights of his people by taking a case to court with the intention of having it overturn the terra nullius land system in Australia which alienated the indigenous people from their land. The sheer determination of this man, against all odds, ensured that he had one of the greatest wins in Australian history for an indigenous person, because the ruling made, overturning the terra nullius system, ensured that over three hundred years of injustice had almost come to an end. The overturning of this system further granted the indigenous people the confidence of identifying themselves with the land of their ancestors and ensured that their right to it was recognized beyond doubt. Eddie Mabo was a man who rose from humble origins as a gardener to becoming one of the national icons of Australia because of the fact that he was deeply involved in fighting for the rights of his people.

While he was born in the Torres Strait Islands, Mabo spent most of his life in Queensland, and was in fact not a well known figure in his home island until after he took his case on indigenous land rights to court. It was only after his death from cancer as well as the court victory over the land issue five months later that his fellow indigenous people on the island welcomed his as one of their own. His victory did not only affect the people of his home island but also all the indigenous people of Australia and this is the reason why Mabo has become one of the most respected men among them. The idea that an indigenous person could almost singlehandedly challenge the Australian status quo and gain a great victory from it was one of those instances which were unheard of in the history of this country. The indigenous people had long been suppressed by the colonial government, and later by the white settlers who dominated and continue to dominate almost every aspect of life in Australia. Mabo’s posthumous court victory ensured that the indigenous people were recognized as a legitimate part of the Australian population with the same rights as those who dominated the society. Furthermore, it may have played a role in the recognition of indigenous people as reasoning human beings who had, throughout the history of the colonization of Australia had been treated unfairly; the court case was therefore the first step in correcting the injustice done to them.

The overturning of the terra nullius policy can be said to be, in reality, a policy of inclusion whose purpose is to ensure that all the Australian people have an equal chance to compete in making their dreams and aspirations come true. Previously, indigenous groups were completely excluded from the majority of economic activities in Australia except for those which were considered to be labor intensive. Moreover these groups were rarely ever accepted in the mainstream Australian life, therefore, Mabo’s court victory can be said to have been a step towards the inclusion of the indigenous people into the center of Australian society. From the very beginning of the Mabo’s case in court, there has been opposition towards it with those against it stating that it is giving an unfair advantage to minority groups over other people in Australia. Those who are opposed to the overturning of the terra nullius system further state that this action went against the proper way of Australian life because of the belief that did not treat all people equally, and instead it gives unfair privileges to those people who would otherwise not have deserved them. These arguments are not very logical considering the injustices which were committed against the indigenous Australian groups in the past. The white population in Australia has been, for a long time, dominant, and Mabo’s court victory was a direct challenge to this status. This may help to explain why Mabo’s grave was vandalized and racist terms painted all over it. This vandalism forced the exhumation of his body and its reburial in his ancestral home in the Torres Strait; a place for whose people he had fought for and won the right to own the land upon which they had lived from time immemorial.

Mabo’s court victory has over the last two decades come to have a significant impact on the people of the islands where he was born. Among the most significant aspects of this has been the recognition that the indigenous people were greatly marginalized in matters concerning health when compared to the mainstream Australian population. This has led to the improvement of the healthcare facilities which are available for them, ensuring a higher life expectancy than in previous years. The declining child death rates has led to a decline in the birth rates, because parents are now more secure because they know that there are enough resources available today to ensure that their children survive. Another reason for this is the fact that the economic conditions prevalent in the indigenous Australian society today do not allow parents to have more than a few children at a time because they cannot afford to have more even if they wanted to. This results in not only fewer children, but it also means that there are fewer ties to the extended family and this in turn means that in subsequent generations, there will be fewer uncles, aunts and cousins, on whom to rely, than in previous generations.

The life expectation of native Australians between the years 1991 and 1996 was projected to be fifty six and sixty one years for men and women in that order. This was found to be considerably lower than that of the mainstream population which was estimated to be between 75 and 91 years for men and women respectively. Furthermore, it was found that the death rate among many indigenous people was at a much higher rate than those of the mainstream Australian population. In fact, the death rate was so high that that they exceeded the general Australian population in every age group that was analyzed. Most of the people from indigenous populations died before reaching the age of fifty, and this was attributed to the lack of the proper healthcare facilities that other Australians have access to. The indigenous population has been completely marginalized in all matters concerning health and this has contributed a great deal in the high mortality rates among them, just when they are at their prime. It has been found that one of the leading causes of death among this population are cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, and these made up 75% of all the deaths that were reported within this population. The rates of hospitalization was much higher among the indigenous people than that of the general Australian public, with these being much higher in all the age groups that were assessed.

While Mabo’s court victory may have been the first step towards the improvement of the lives of the indigenous people, there is still a lot to be done to achieve this objective. Racism is still as prevalent as it was before the ruling, as seen when Mabo’s grave was vandalized just one day after his funeral with racist terms being painted all over his headstone. In addition, the health status of indigenous people, for whom Mabo fought, while it has improved somewhat, still has a long way to go before it can reach the status that the other Australians enjoy. Life expectancy is still low, with many indigenous people not living to be more than fifty years old, an occurrence which is a great tragedy in a country which prides itself in being one of the most developed in the world. The fact that an indigenous person had to go to court in order to get basic land rights for its people shows just how ironic Australian democracy is because it favors those people of Caucasian descent more than the natives of the land. This has created a situation where the latter are dominated completely and they have little say in their own destiny. It is to either bow to the status quo or risk the continued marginalization of their society. This is something which should not be accepted, not only by the indigenous people themselves, but also by the government because the latter should be at the forefront of protecting the rights of the indigenous people. The indigenous people should also fight for their own rights because not to do so would mean that their situation will not be recognized, hence a solution will not be attained. It such a thing was to happen, then the legacy of such indigenous men as Eddie Mabo would be forever tarnished.

Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal is the estimation of how the employees of an organization have performed over a certain period as well as to gain an understanding of how these employees work. It is a process through which an organization’s employees are assessed to ensure that they work in conformity with its goals. The appraisal is conducted as part of the performance management process of the organization because how it is handled is what determines whether the organization is able to achieve its goals or not. It can further be said that a performance appraisal is an assessment and discussion of how an employee has performed in his or her work and this assessment is based purely on performance and not on the characteristics that a re displayed by the individual employee. This process helps in the measurement of the skills that have been displayed and the things which an employee has accomplished with as much accuracy and uniformity as possible.

The understanding that is developed by the employee’s supervisor enables him to determine the abilities of individual employees and this ensures that they are placed in positions within the organization which will further its growth and achievement of its goals. Furthermore, it is designed to help the employers determine the areas whose performance needs to be enhanced as well as ensuring that the employees are provided with the opportunities that are necessary for the promotion of their professional growth. This process is done in methodical ways which gives the supervisors the opportunity to measure the payments that are made to their employees in comparison to the aims and objectives of the organization. Performance appraisal also gives the supervisors the opportunity to make an analysis of the factors that determine how the employees perform over a certain period. It is a system which helps the management of an organization to be in a position where it is able to provide guidance to its employees towards a path which will lead to their performing better in their jobs.

While performance appraisal can be considered to be an immensely important tool for that can be used by supervisors to gain an understanding of the people who work under them, it is not necessarily the only one. This process has to be augmented by the supervisors ensuring that there are open lines of communication available to employees throughout that ensure that there is an understanding which helps in the determination of a good and effective working relationship. When conducting a performance appraisal, the supervisor must ensure that each employee is given an appraisal that is thoughtful and careful so that an accurate assessment can be made. In order for a performance appraisal to be successful, the supervisor must display a willingness to conduct an appraisal that is both constructive and objective. In addition, the employee must display a willingness to take positively all the suggestions that are made to him or her, and to be able to work with the supervisor to achieve the goals of their organization.

A performance appraisal is a process that is conducted once every year by a supervisor to evaluate the performance of all the employees that work under him. There might arise cases where an employee may have changed jobs within the period before the appraisal and in such cases, both of the supervisors of this employee during his period have to make a submission of his or her performance so that a fair appraisal can be made. During this process, the most up to date job description of the employee on file is evaluated by the employee and their supervisor and if it is found to be necessary, this description can be revised. The process also involves a review of the salary increase to which each employee is entitled and this tends to be subject to the approval of the administration. The basis upon which this increment is allocated is that of the merit of the employee’s performance and its aim is to reward the top performers within the organization as a match for their contributions. 

In many organizations, the performance appraisal is part of the annual activities that have to be conducted. However, in many cases, the role that is given to the supervisor as judge tends not to be taken lightly and it is in fact heartily disliked by many supervisors. This is due to the fact that many of the supervisors involved tend to hold the fate of their employees in their hands during this process, something which can be disastrous for both parties involved. Many of the supervisors who conduct the performance appraisal tend to be influenced more by the recent actions of the employees than that of the entire period of the appraisal. Since most of the information gathered by the supervisor is based on recent memory, it is often difficult to create a true picture of an employee’s performance. One would go as far as to say that the appraisal process is flawed because it lacks the objectivity needed to judge the employees fairly.

It is common practice in many organizations for the supervisors to put off conducting performance appraisals for their employees because of their discomfort over being the judge of the level of their employees’ performance. This, in the process, ensures that many of the performance appraisals are often long overdue and this creates a situation where the employees become resentful of their supervisors. Many employees often feel that their supervisors are denying them the right of receiving a well deserved pay increment since the annual pay rises of the employees tend to be tied to how well they performed in their appraisals. The performance appraisal is subject to many complications some of which include inaccuracy of the information concerning employees. This is because of the fact that many of the decisions made by the supervisors as judges is often from recent memory and it fails to put into account the performance of individual employees throughout the period, usually a year. To avoid any conflict with the employees, supervisors end up assessing them favorably and not according to their real performance, ensuring that there is a flaw in the day to day running of the organization.

Gran Torino (2008)

Gran Torino is a film that depicts the relationship between Walt Kowalski, a Korean War veteran who has been recently widowed, and Thao Vang Lor, a young neighbor of Hmong origins. The anger and bitterness that Walt feels towards the world and his family dives him towards living a lonely life alienated from almost everyone else. Thao is a young man who seeks to join a gang led by his cousin with the latter encouraging him to steal Walt’s Ford Gran Torino as an initiation ritual into the gang. When Walt foils his attempt, he and Thao end up developing a wary friendship with the former acting as a mentor for the young man. This is a story that shows the life that ethnic minorities in the United States have to live because they have very few opportunities to ensure that they improve the circumstances in their lives. Gran Torino is a film that seeks to ensure that there is recognition of the cultural diversity that exists in the United States and the need for there to be cultural understanding in order for social cohesion to take place. The multicultural relationship between Walt and Thao can be considered to be an illustration of what can be achieved through cultural understanding while Walt’s family’s seeming disapproval of the Hmong’s community attending Walt’s funeral can be considered to be a sign of the cultural alienation that Hmong in the United States have experienced since their arrival. Gran Torinoallows for a unique view of the Hmong community in the United States as well as advocates for a need for the development of cultural cohesion in the nation.

One of the most important cultural relationships that are depicted in Grand Torino is that between Walt, Thao and Thao’s Hmong family. Walt, a recently widowed white American, ends up striking a friendship with Thao’s family and becomes a mentor for Thao and his sister Sue. Sue also helps Walt learn Hmong culture and this cultural understanding brings him even closer to the Vang Lor family as well as to the rest of the Hmong community in the neighborhood. Furthermore, it should be noted that Sue goes against cultural isolation through her choosing to date Trey; a young white man. Walt becomes so involved with the Vang Lor family to such an extent that they become closer to him than his own family: the latter who he considers to be emotionally detached from him with their only interest being on his estate. Walt’s involvement with the Hmong community also opens his eyes to the cultural diversity that is present in his neighborhood and this allows him to ensure that he not only feels like a part of this community, but also seeks to protect them from Spider’s gang.

The process of acculturation is one where communities, mainly migrant, adapt to the culture of their new countries in order to fit in with the rest of society. This is normally done in a diverse number of ways from matters concerning diet to such aspects as language and names. In Gran Torino, it should be noted that a significant number of individuals in the Hmong community have come to adopt diverse aspects of American culture. Among these, as seen in this film, is that of dating, where both Thao and his sister Sue date; a situation which is not common in Hmong culture. Another aspect of culture that is seen in this film is enculturation, which is a situation where individuals learn the requirements of a new culture and adapt to aspects of its language and rituals to ensure social acceptance. This is the case with Walt who, with Sue’s help, seeks to ensure that he learns aspects of Hmong culture in order to better interact with the community.

Cultural relativism is the judging of an alien culture through its own understanding of its practices rather than one’s own. This is opposed to ethnocentrism which is the judgment of a different culture based on one’s own cultural perspective. Subcultures are the practices conducted by a small group of individuals in a bid to ensure that they differentiate themselves from the larger cultural grouping. In Gran Torino, all these aspects of culture are dealt with, as seen through cultural relativism where Sue encourages Walt to develop and understanding of Hmong culture. This is in contrast with Walt’s previous opinion of his Hmong neighbors where he often judged them based on his own culture and cared nothing for them. A sub-cultural perspective is where Spider’s gang conducts its own rites of initiation into the group and acts to punish those it believes are turning away from its culture. This is especially the case with the gang’s attempt to punish Thao for failing in stealing the Ford Gran Torino that would have allowed him to join the gang.

In conclusion, the discussion above has sought to show that Gran Torino is a film that portrays the diverse aspects of culture in the United States. Most of the instances that take place within this film are based on culture and its aspects such as ethnocentrism, acculturation, enculturation, as well as subculture. All of the latter are shown in the film through the interactions that take place between Walt, the Vang Lor family, and Spider’s gang and this ensures that there is greater cultural understanding; especially in relation to Hmong American culture. The film shows that cultural isolation is detrimental to individual development, as seen in the hostile attitude that Walt has towards his neighbors before the beginning of his interaction with the Vang Lor family and Hmong culture. Therefore, one would suggest that Gran Torino is a film that seeks to show how greater cultural interaction between the mainstream and minority cultures in the United States would allow for greater social development. Not only would it bring out the best of these cultures, but it would also lead to a situation where there is an advancement of social cohesion which is a desirable trait in any nation.

The Virgin Mary Painting and Religion in Mexican art

Religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. The fact that a large number of Mexican artists are influenced by religion in their work is mainly based on the fact that a majority of Mexicans are highly religious individuals, and very devoted to the Roman Catholic Church (Taylor, 145). It has been found that a large number of artists in Mexico consider it their duty to create religious images because in the devotional sense, they consider it to be an act of worship. The Virgin Mary also has a very prominent position in the religious art of Mexico and this is mainly because of the fact that she is highly venerated in the country with many Mexicans considering her to be the mother of the entire nation. In addition, many Mexicans during their prayers seek the help of the Virgin Mary as they ask her to intercede to God and Jesus on their behalf and this has ensured that she has come to be revered by all the people in the nation. The prominence of the Virgin Mary in the national psyche has ensured that she is also given a prominent position in art, because Mexican artists, like all Mexican people, are very devoted to her. This has led to a situation where most of the art in the country has some religious aspect in one way or the other and this has ensured that the religious spirit of Mexican artwork has remained prevalent with little sign of its diminishing in the coming years. Religion has been a source of inspiration for Mexican art for many years and it is for this reason that a large number of art that it produced in this country, even that in the secular realm, has some aspect of religion within it.

As has been mentioned above, Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. However, it has been found that the Catholicism that is practiced in this country is highly syncretic, and this is mainly because of the fact that a large number of the indigenous people readily accepted it after the Spanish conquest (Carruthers, 358). While this may have been the case, most of them accepted the new religion by making an association between it and their own traditional religions so that the Virgin of Guadalupe came to be associated with their goddess Tonantzin, and it is in the latter manner that she has been depicted in Mexican art to this day. It is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. The Catholic Church has always been a champion for the rights of all the common people in Mexico as they have fought against tyrannical or elitist rule since their independence (Purnell, 222). These actions on behalf of the people have given it massive influence over their lives and this has been based on the respect that many Mexicans feel towards it. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists include aspects of their Catholic beliefs in their artwork and many of them feel that in doing so, they are fulfilling their religious and devotional duty towards the individuals that they depict in their work. In the latter case, most of the images which are depicted in Mexican art involve the Virgin Mary, shown in her incarnation as the Virgin of Guadalupe, and the most respected religious figure in the country.

Most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. It is therefore common for Mexican artists to include some form of religious symbol in their art, the most common being the image of the crucified Jesus or the image of the Virgin Mary in one of her incarnations, especially as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Pardo, 312). This influence of religion in Mexican art is normally further enforced through the involvement of priests in the daily lives of most Mexicans. This involvement tends to be marked by various important events such as during births, weddings, and death; all of these events being normally officiated by priests. In addition, it has been found that priests also get involved in other activities in the lives of many Mexicans such as when the latter need to have their property, such as newly acquired homes, vehicles and businesses, blessed by a priest. Thus, priests are not only involved in the daily religious lives of many Mexicans, but parish priests tend to be also involved in their social lives as well and this is normally because the priests more often than not know a majority of the members of the communities whom they serve. The priests, being representatives of the church, usually end up emphasizing, albeit unconsciously, the role of the Church in the daily lives of many Mexicans and all of this, one would suggest, has a profound influence on the work of artists. In this manner, the influence of religious practitioners in Mexico cannot be underestimated when one considers the fact that most of the art of this country is very religious in character and this attests to the highly devotional nature of the artists to their religious beliefs as well.

Religious rituals and holy places have been found to play a significant role in the art of Mexico and this is because of the fact that these are very important aspects of life in this country. In most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar (Conover, 441). These events, from the Last Supper, Transfiguration, and Crucifixion are among the most revered aspects of Mexican religious belief and because artists want to connect with their audience, they normally include these events in their art. The ability of religion to influence the artists of Mexico can also be attributed to the numerous religious observances that Mexicans often participate in throughout the year in veneration of the large number of Catholic saints according to the religious calendar. These events often attract a large number of people and pilgrims not only from Mexico but also from the rest of the world who come to visit the holy places in this country. It is mainly because of the high religious observance by people from Mexico that artists add aspects of religion in their work and they do this to ensure that they not only connect with their audience, but that they are able to sell their art, because it is through the latter that they make a living. Thus, artists often tap into the emotional attachment that many Mexicans have to religion in order to develop the form of art which is full of religious aspects which are often sold faster than those with secular aspects. For a nation which is highly devoted to Catholic beliefs, it is normal for many individuals, especially those who go on pilgrimage to religious shrines, to want to take religious art back to their homes (Bailey, 191). This is where artists have an advantage because they are able to develop art forms which appeal to the majority of the pilgrims and in this manner; they are able to make a more comfortable living from their work than those who concentrate on nonreligious art. Furthermore, it is a fact that all communities in Mexico, both urban and rural, tend to have their own patron saints and artists have taken advantage of this aspect of Mexican life to make art which is representative of all of these communities.

Because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. This obsession with death and the afterlife can be attributed to the massive integration of indigenous religious beliefs into the Mexican Catholic culture and this has ensured that many of the artists within this culture are very interested in the subject (Nesvig, 225). For most Mexicans, the need to live a good life so that when they die and reach judgment, they can be promoted to paradise is very essential for them and this leads them to devote at least some of their time to religious observances. Their entreaties to the Virgin of Guadalupe to intercede to God on their behalf have created a situation where artists work very hard to ensure that they present this situation as it is. Death in Mexican culture is not something to be feared but is accepted as a basic part of life and is at times celebrated and it is mainly because of this perception that it has become part of their basic religious beliefs. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists, in their depictions of death, instead of making it gloomy and a sad event, depict it a celebration, as it is believed that those individuals who are dying have moved on to be with their creator (De León, 493). This is in contrast with other cultures, especially those to the north of Mexico, where artists often depict death as something scary which many human beings fear and try to escape it at all costs. Mexican art, on the other hand, is quite open concerning the various aspects of death and this is because of their staunch religious beliefs concerning the matter, since there is the constant belief that there is an afterlife and that the best means to deal with it is not to fear it, but to celebrate it. The best examples of Mexican art concerning death are those inspired by the Days of the Dead, which act as days when the dead within the society are not only remembered but also celebrated.

Artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them. One will find that even in their depictions of the most regular things in life, such as love, hate, nature, and other forms of art subjects, most of these artists often make religious depictions or they create images which more or less have religious connotations (Wolford, 1049). This not only enables them to show their artistic prowess, but it also allows them to ensure that they do so in a manner which is both attractive and devotional. Catholic beliefs are predominant within Mexico and it is very difficult to go anywhere within the settled part of the country where there are no religious depictions in one form or the other (Schroeder, 56). These often serve as inspirations for many artists who base their works on them while at the same time working towards depicting the everyday lives of Mexicans. Because of the highly religious nature of some of the Mexican artworks, there is a lot of demand for it from the extremely devoted members of the local society, many of whom put these artworks in their homes or places of work in the belief that they bring them closer to God. The art of Mexico which has religious aspects has come to also have a high demand internationally, especially from those individuals and states which are devoutly Catholic and this has ensured that there are massive purchases of the same. This demand has also encouraged more artists to concentrate on the creation of works which are religious in nature as this has more demand than secular art. However, in recent years, with the younger generation of Mexicans not being as devout as their parents and previous generations, there has developed a high demand for secular artwork. There has developed a trend where the influence of religion on Mexican art has begun to wane as the population becomes more secularized as a result of the various aspects of globalization. While this has been the case, one will also find that the influence of religion is still strong and while its influence may be waning, it will likely remain a strong part of Mexican art in the coming generations.

In conclusion, it has been found that religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. It has also been found that Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. In addition, it is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. Moreover, it is important to note that most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. Furthermore, in most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar. Finally, because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. Thus, one would say that the artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the people who I admire the most in the world, not only as a leader of men, but also as a man devoted to his family. This admiration does not just stem from the fact that he is one of the greatest men to have ever lived in the Western world, but it also comes from the way he conducted himself throughout his life. Napoleon was indeed a unique man, who rose from extremely humble origins and became the emperor of the most powerful nation in Europe at the time. His life has been the subject of numerous literatures, with some writers supporting his deeds while others have condemned them. Despite these disagreements about Napoleon, one thing, which all writers agree upon, is that he was indeed an extraordinary man. Most historians consider Napoleon to have been one of, if not the foremost, military general in world history. Within a few years after becoming the French emperor, he had brought most of continental Europe under his rule. Furthermore, he had created a unique system of government, the like of which had never been seen in Europe. For the first time in the years after the French Revolution, the Catholic Church returned to France under his guidance. In addition, Napoleon was a man unique in his time because of the immense love he had for his family. He was also a man who was not afraid to take any path to satisfy his ambitions. It is because of all these distinctiveness and a lot more, which make him the person I have a high regard for.

Napoleon was born in the town of Ajaccio in Corsica, in 1769, to a local Corsican minor nobleman, and his birth coincided with the time when the French were trying to enforce their rule on Corsica, an island which had recently been ceded to them by an Italian ruler. Napoleon was born just a year after the French had acquired Corsica, and this occurrence ensured that he was born a French national. This ensured that while he was growing up, he did not share the same resentment as older Corsicans did towards what was locally termed as a French occupation. Instead, napoleon grew up with a great admiration for the French, something which would eventually guide him towards the path of becoming their ruler. Because his father had collaborated with the French from the early days of the occupation, he was given a particularly powerful position in the government of Ajaccio. This ensured that his family remained well off, and because of the influence his office carried, two of his sons, Joseph and Napoleon, were sent to the prestigious College d’Autun in France, where they were to be educated. It is thus that Napoleon came to France for the first time; little knowing that he would one day come to rule this country. His father passed away while he was still at a military college, and he was forced to act as the head of his family, despite his being a younger son. This was because his older brother, Joseph, was exceedingly incompetent and tended not to take his responsibilities seriously. This is one of the characteristics displayed by Napoleon that are most admirable. He was not afraid to take up responsibility, no matter how hard they seemed to be at first.

It was soon after he left the military college that he and his family permanently relocated to France, where Napoleon’s career would begin in earnest. For a person so young, he showed his ambitions early by joining a political group soon after relocating to France. Furthermore, he took up military service in the French army which was based in Nice. The tumultuous events, which were taking place in France during this time, gave Napoleon the opportunity to satisfy his ambitions. He got his first successful break when he saved the government of the time from a coup attempt by a rival group. This act ensured that he got the attention of the committee which ruled France at the time, who promoted him to the position of commander in the army. His new found influence earned him the command of the French army in Italy; a position, which he had coveted. This is where his martial ability came to be exhibited for the first time. When he was given command, he found the men to be disgruntled and underfed. His charismatic nature and organizational and military brilliance soon changed that as this became the best wing of the French military. Not only was there a complete turnaround in the men’s morale, Napoleon managed to gain victories over the Austrians which were crucial to the French cause. These actions vastly enhanced his image in France, and when he returned, he was a national hero. With his return to France, Napoleon truly started his political career.

This man’s political genius can be seen through his actions after his return to France from the war in Italy. He made what one could term a political marriage to one of the most famous women in France at the time, Josephine de Beauharnais. This turned out to be a tremendously popular marriage in the country, and it further enhanced Napoleon’s image as the national hero. Within a few years, Napoleon came to gain power in France, as one of the three men who ruled the country. His political genius then came into play as he had the constitution revised, making him the most powerful man in the country. This new power enabled him to have the authority to appoint all the people who were to occupy strategic positions. With Napoleon’s rise to power, it can be said that the French Revolution officially came to an end. His actions show that he was indeed a child of the revolution, as he used to say. He swiftly reformed all the crucial sectors in the government, making them more efficient than they had ever been before. Reforms were carried out in such sectors as the economy, the judicial system, as well as the education system. Napoleon’s greatness can further be seen when he restored those basic freedoms which the French people had been denied. One of these freedoms was the freedom of religion, which Napoleon reinstated by inviting the Catholic Church back to France. However, he did not give the Church the absolute authority it once had, and instead, its activities were placed under the supervision of the state. This ensured that the Church did not abuse its powers as it had done previously.

One of the most admirable things about Napoleon is his dedication to his family. When he rose to greatness, he made sure that members of his family also shared in it. He was exceedingly generous to them, often giving his siblings powerful positions in his empire. In fact, all of his siblings, except one, became monarchs of various parts of the continent during his rule. Even Joseph, the brother who had abandoned his responsibility as the oldest son, was made a king of Spain. This just shows the true nature of Napoleon; he was a loving man who did not hold grudges. Napoleon had one known illegitimate son, Alexandre Walewski, whose mother was a Polish noblewoman. While many men in that period tended to ignore their illegitimate children, Napoleon recognized his son and took responsibility for him. This can be said to be an example of his loving and caring nature. Despite the many wars which took place under his rule, the French people did surprisingly well. Their government was for the first time highly efficient, and the bureaucracy whom Napoleon had put in place worked far better than previous governments. It is because of all these achievements, made by a man from such humble origins, that I consider Napoleon to be one of the greatest and most admirable, men in history.

Were Atrocities Committed in Vietnam?

The United States throughout its history has gone to war starting with its war of independence until most recently, the war in Iraq and Afghanistan. In most of the wars that it has been involved in, there have been claims that the United States military has committed atrocities against the civilian populations of the countries it has invaded. The reports of such atrocities have been reported during the following instances: the Philippine-American war; the Second World War; the Korean War; the Vietnam War; in Yugoslavia in 1999; and finally, during the War on Terror. In this paper, we shall discuss some American atrocities committed during the Vietnam War with specific emphasis on the crimes committed against the noncombat civilian population within Vietnam.

Atrocities such as the killing of noncombat civilians or the torture of prisoners occur in all wars but that it became a particular issue in the Vietnam War. Violence against the civilians of Vietnam by the American military was an intentional act of war and they acted with indifference to the destruction of noncombatants and to that of their property. Most of the military commanders of the United States were aware of the laws governing ground warfare that had been established by various international agreements but atrocities were still committed by some American soldiers and officers. Throughout the entire war, only two hundred and seventy eight soldiers and marines were convicted of murder, rape, and other violent crimes by the military justice system but many more incidents went unpunished or were not even reported. The policy of heavy bombing by in South Vietnam with high explosives and napalm by American forces to support ground operations in and around villages and the widespread use of artillery for the same purpose generated many accidental civilian casualties.

The United States military used herbicides and defoliants as part of its herbicidal warfare in Vietnam, and one of these, known as Agent Orange, was used extensively from 1961 to 1971 in South Vietnam and in portions of North Vietnam. At the time the herbicides were being used, there was little consideration within the American military about the potential long term effects of the widespread use of Agent Orange towards the Vietnamese population. It is further unclear exactly where in Vietnam the Agent Orange herbicides were sprayed and the amount sprayed at each location and this has ensured that virtually every aspect of the effects of this herbicide in Vietnam is infused with uncertainty. These herbicides were used on the crops of the Vietnamese civilians so that the crops could die causing mass starvation. The American army commanders mistakenly believed that starvation would force the Vietnamese population to support the American backed South Vietnamese regime but this turned out to be counterproductive because instead the people lost all confidence in the southern government and secretly supported the North. Another major result of the use of these herbicides was the mass starvation that occurred after their use and a lot of the civilian population, which had nothing to do with the war, died in the resulting famine.

It was the fear, anger, and incentive for promotion or commendation for a high body count (which was a requirement by the military at the time) that led the American soldiers to an over application of their weaponry which constituted atrocities against the civilian population. Individual Vietnamese and sometimes even entire villages could be killed because they were suspected of being the enemy or in certain incidents; they were simply killed just because they got in the way. The Vietnam war, with its tactical use of high altitude bombing and artillery fire, and the search and destroy missions resulted in mass killings. These weapons were used indiscriminately by the American military and in the process many civilians were killed accidentally. The number of these accidental killings may border in the tens of thousands because there were no statistics, whether private or official, at the time to show their extent. Furthermore, while platoons were on missions, their leaders rarely restrained them from committing such acts as would be deemed atrocities in normal human societies. One of the major and most notable of these incidents, due to the high media attention it gained, was the My Lai massacre of 1968.

The My Lai massacre in Vietnam was the mass murder of between three hundred and five hundred Vietnamese civilians in the village of Son My by American soldiers during the Vietnam War. Most of the victims of this massacre were women, children and the elderly and when investigations were carried out, some of the bodies were found to have been mutilated and many of the women had been raped preceding the killings. When news of this massacre first came to light, the army tried to deflect any concern about it by blaming it on the South Vietnamese military. This incident prompted global outrage when it became public and it increase the domestic opposition for the United State’s involvement in Vietnam. The My Lai massacre had numerous complex causes which included psychological stress on the soldiers, poor unit leadership, bad intelligence, and an overall American strategy that put more emphasis on killing than on protecting the people. The American strategy of having body counts to show their progress in their progress in the war was very detrimental to the lives of the Vietnamese civilians because they could not be differentiated from the North Vietnamese soldiers who also wore peasant clothing. This led to the American soldiers’ killing of random Vietnamese civilians on suspicion that they were enemy forces. Some soldiers, bent on having a higher body count in order to establish their reputations within the military ranks, wantonly killed Vietnamese civilians in order to raise their counts.

By its nature, atrocity defies rationality, marking the limits of understanding and he uses this to explain what happened in Vietnam. The order to kill anything that moves caused many American soldiers to commit vast and unthinkable atrocities in Vietnam. American platoons had a tendency of waylaying civilians, raping the women among them, and at times murdered them in cold blood. In certain instances, if the American soldiers did not find anybody to fight in the various villages across the countryside of Vietnam, they would instead indulge themselves by raping, torturing, and murdering the hundreds of civilians living within such villages. Most of these cases went unreported because the people of Vietnam at the time did not have did not have any legal authority they could turn to for justice because they were in the middle of a war and furthermore, the government which claimed to represent them (South Vietnam) had allied itself with a foreign power in order to maintain its authority. In fact, the South Vietnamese government actively supported the American involvement in Vietnam despite the fact that atrocities were being committed against its civilian population.

America committed genocide in Vietnam and admits that individual atrocities and war crimes did occur in that country. One would agree with Sevy’s opinion because of the statistics showing the American military casualties of the war. It is said that about fifty eight thousand United States soldiers died in the Vietnamese war and this was despite their having a weapons technology that was far superior to that of their opponents. Now that it has been determined that the Americans had superior weapons, we should now the casualties in the Vietnamese side. If the American lost nearly sixty thousand soldiers despite their superior weapons, it is only logical to assume that the Vietnamese lost many times more that number in armed forces and that would be without counting the civilian casualties of this war. The random killings that were committed by all the armed forces involved in this conflict may put the number of civilian casualties in the millions. It is my suggestion that if the Americans had not involved themselves in the war in the first place, then it would have come to a swift end much sooner than it did.

The American atrocities in Vietnam are real and that they happened on a much grander scale than have been reported. It is up to the United States government to recognize and acknowledge these atrocities and not only do so, but also apologize to the people of Vietnam for committing them. If the American government would do this, then there would definitely be an improvement in the relations between America and Vietnam which would bring them even closer than they are today. Furthermore, America would earn global respect for owning up to its failures and because of this new found respect; America would be able to retain its hegemony over the world with the good will of all the nations of the world. This would be to its advantage especially considering that new world powers, such as China, Russia, and Brazil, are rising to challenge America’s authority as the only world superpower.

A Geopolitical Profile of Russia

Introduction

Russia is one of the most influential geopolitical entities in the world today and this is mainly as a result of its unique position in the global arena. This country has been extremely influential in the Eurasian region for much of its history and this influence has not only been political, but cultural as well. The power of this state, from the time of the tsars to the post-communist world can be considered to have essentially remained intact within the region surrounding it. This country is normally ranked second only to the United States in its ability to project its power across the globe and it is mainly as a result of this that it has been able to retain its influence long after falling from its superpower status.

Geography

Russia is the largest country in the world with its borders stretching from northern Europe across northern Asia to the Bering Straits. As the largest country in the world, with an area of 17,075,400 square kilometres, it is one of the few countries in the world that have a diversity of natural resources, people, as well as neighbouring countries. The result is that this country has come to exert a lot of influence over a large territory as well as its neighbours for centuries. Its geographical position is unique because it allows it to wield some influence on three continents as well as being able to project itself militarily. Russia incorporates a wide range of climates and environments within its territory and these have had an effect on its historical development. Moreover, this country has borders with a diverse number of countries including China, Norway, Lithuania, Finland, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the United States across the Bering Straits, among many others.  The geographical position of this country has also placed it on top of the largest oil and gas reserves on the planet and this country has been able to ensure that this resource is used to further its geopolitical power over the Eurasian region. In addition to oil and natural gas, Russia has other significant resources which include deposits of timber, coal, and as well as mineral resources that have given it an advantage over other countries in the region. As the largest producer of natural gas in the world, Russia is in a unique position to determine the futures of some of its neighbouring countries, most of which were former member states of the Soviet Union. It is through its unique position as being the number one producer of natural gas, in addition to oil, that it has been able to ensure that it maintains its influence over the region because it has the funding necessary to make its influence felt. The large forests that are found in the region of Siberia are second only to the Amazon jungle in Brazil and they are believed to absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide which helps to ensure that the air in the region is kept clean. The eastern parts of Russia are relatively sparsely populated when compared to the European side which carries the bulk of the population. While this may be the case, there are a significant number of people in all its administrative regions, these being individuals who have for the most part acclimatised to the harsh climate that occurs especially in the northernmost parts of the country. While Russia has come to occupy such a large area, this was not the case in its early centuries where it was essentially divided into diverse city-states and duchies controlled by members of the Rurik dynasty. However, all this changed when these disparate city states were unified and the Russian state began its expansion in earnest during the 16th century. The result was that it ended up conquering much of the land that had once been occupied by the Mongol Golden Horde. Its occupation of new lands sealed its fate in world history because it is through its size as well as its multiethnic make up that this state has come to be recognised into the modern world. Through its new found geographical acquisitions, Russia was able to make sure that it was no longer a victim of the aggression of other European powers. Instead, its geographical position became the basis upon which its status as a great European power was established and this would continue until the fall of Communism in 1991.

History

The Russian state was established in the tenth century by a legendary group of Vikings based in Kiev and this would later expand into what came to be known as Russia. The founders of this state, according to legend, were Rurik and his brothers who would eventually end up forming the Rurik dynasty that would rule Russia until the death of Ivan the Terrible. The early Russian state was essentially a pagan one with little interaction with the outside world until Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity, thus establishing ties with the Byzantine Empire. The growth of the Russian state was brought to a sudden halt in the thirteenth century during the Mongol conquest which resulted in the sacking of Kiev. The destruction of the first Russian state led to a shift of power to Moscow, which was ruled by another Rurik prince and was a vassal of the Mongols. The vassalage to the Mongols of the Golden Horde ensured the survival of the Russian state in Moscow in the form of the Grand Duchy of Muscovy. This would eventually rise to such great prominence that it would not only overthrow Mongol rule, but would eventually evolve into the Russian Empire, encompassing all the lands of the Golden Horde. With the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks, Russia, which had also established ties through dynastic marriage, claimed to be the heir to the power and glory of Caesars. In this way, Moscow came to be considered the third Rome and its rulers began to be called Tsars, Russian for Caesar.

Russia entered the modern age under the rule of Peter the Great whose efforts were directed at making his country a truly European state. He forced the Russians to cease some of the traditions that seemed to keep them back and were considered unEuropean. Furthermore, he established a new capital closer to Europe at St. Petersburg, essentially choosing it over Moscow as the preeminent city in the Russian Empire. In addition to these efforts, Peter the Great carried out campaigns which ensured that the empire was greatly expanded while at the same time gaining political leverage with other European states through developing modern means of shipping as well as adopting the European culture, especially that of France. However, despite these efforts, Peter was not able to end one of the institutions which held Russia back from becoming one of the most powerful states in Europe, serfdom. Serfdom had existed in Russia for centuries and this institution had developed to such an extent that individuals, particularly serfs, were essentially slaves in their own land. The serfs formed the majority of the Russian population and these were tied to the land which for the most part was held by nobles or boyars; individuals who practically owned the serfs on their land. Serfdom remained a stain in Peter’s legacy and it would eventually be the motivation behind the Russian Revolution centuries later in the early twentieth century.

The Russian Revolution and the resulting civil war is one of the most significant events to have taken place in the twentieth century because it ensured the rise of communism in the former Russian Empire, which became the Soviet Union, and later across the globe. The Russian royal family was put to death and the monarchy abolished to be replaced by a communist state under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. Lenin was a charismatic leader who was a staunch believer in Marxist philosophy and sought to ensure that communism spread all over the world. His death and succession by Josef Stalin led to a new phase in the development of communism in Russia with Stalin choosing a more aggressive approach to that taken by his predecessor. He made a deal with the Nazi government in Germany for the partition of Poland and after the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union, he changed sides and joined the allies in the Second World War. The fall of Britain, Germany, and France as great powers after the Second World War paved the way for the Soviet Union to become a global superpower alongside the United States and this ushered in considerable rivalry between these states that became known as the Cold War. The power of these countries was based on their having considerable nuclear arsenals; the latter ensuring that there was no direct confrontation between these superpowers. The fall of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 was one of the most significant events in the later twentieth century because it ensured American pre-eminence in a unipolar world.

Power

Despite its loss of power after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has remained an important player in regional and global politics. One of its greatest strengths is that it has been able to maintain a level of influence over a majority of former soviet republics especially through the significant number of Russians living in these countries. Furthermore, as a result of its size as well as abundant natural resources, especially natural gas and oil, this country has been able to ensure that it exerts a level of influence over its neighbours. This is especially the case with the European Union which for years developed deals of cooperation with Russia while the latter supplied it with one third of its natural gas supplies. Under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, Russia has seen its influence rise on the global stage, with its becoming more assertive about its interests. Through its permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council, Russia has been able to ensure that it not only protects its legitimate interests, but also those of its allies. The result has been that it has increasingly cooperated with China to break the dominance of the United States and its allies over global affairs. Russia is also a nuclear state with the largest nuclear arsenal in the world and this has helped in securing its position in the globe as well as acting as a deterrent to powers that would otherwise led to its demise.

However, despite its strengths, Russia also has several weaknesses which might create a situation where it loses its geopolitical position. Among these is its overreliance on its oil and natural gas production to cater for some 50% of its budget. This overreliance on its natural resources has created a situation where Russia has essentially failed to diversify its economy and this poses a potential threat from a geopolitical perspective. Furthermore, its aggressive stance to protect its natural interests has made it a target for American and European Union sanctions with the latter seeing Russian re-emergence as a threat to their global dominance. These sanctions, imposed in 2014 at the height of the Ukraine crisis and Russian annexation of Crimea, have been harmful to the Russian economy and have led to its shrinking. The fall of global oil prices has also diminished Russia’s budgetary capabilities; hampering its continued rise as a dominant geopolitical power in the Eurasian continent.

Russia has attempted to ensure that it no longer loses its influence over former soviet republics after Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania not only joined NATO but also the European Union. This is the reason why Russia has chosen to take on a more aggressive stance because it considers NATO encroachment on its borders as a threat. The wars first in Georgia in 2008 and the ongoing Ukraine civil war are actions which have been taken by Russia to prevent former soviet republics from joining NATO. Since the return of Vladimir Putin to the Russian presidency in 2012, the relationship between Russia and the United States has soured as each has come to view each other with increasing suspicion. The mutual suspicion between these two nuclear armed states has increased tensions to almost Cold War proportions and it has led to a situation where despite not confronting each other directly, they have become involved in a proxy war in the Ukraine as well as in Syria where Russian support has ensured that Bashar Al Assad has remained in power.

Conclusion

Russia has remained a powerful actor in the Eurasian region; a factor which can be attributed to its nuclear capabilities as well as the abundance of natural resources within its borders. The size of this country has also ensured that it pursues a complex foreign policy designed to address its interests with its numerous neighbours. Russia has increasingly aligned itself with such countries as China and Iran in a bid to diminish American influence over the rest of the world and in a bid to create a multipolar world. It is yet to be seen whether its geopolitical objectives will be met in the near future amid the economic sanctions that have been enforced by the United States and its allies. The rise of Russian nationalism as a result of the Ukraine crisis has seen a level of unprecedented support for the Russian government and its actions; a situation which has ensured that the government is able to pursue its objectives internationally with the full support of a majority of the Russian populace.