The New World: How it is perceived

Colin Calloway’s approach to the concept of the new world is one which differs from traditional views. This is mainly because, instead of focusing mainly on the European context, he creates a balanced focus on the manner through which Native Americans and European settlers were able to interact and create a vibrant new culture. For the most part, traditional conceptions of the new world tend to attribute the establishment of history as well as organized society to European settlers and often disregards the Native Americans as being individuals who lacked history because none of their histories was written, but instead transmitted orally. As a result, the history of the new world has come to be recorded from the time of European settlement and the contribution of the Native Americans to the development of the new society have been totally forgotten because of the Eurocentric view of them as being savages. However, Calloway is able to bring together the histories of both European settlers and Native Americans in such a way that promotes the idea of their having interacted and each having affected the lives of the other. The American culture, according to Calloway, did not just come up as a result of European settlement, and instead, it came about because both Europeans and Native Americans made their contributions to it; bringing about a unique culture that has become dominant in the whole country. Thus, Calloway considers Native Americans to have been advanced enough both socially and culturally to have an influence on the Europeans who ended up settling amongst them; in contrast to the traditional meaning of the new world.

One of the most significant aspects of the interactions between European settlers and Native Americans, covered by Calloway, is that it led to the spread of diseases that were prevalent in Europe into Native American populations. The spread of these diseases was not done intentionally, but instead, it came about as a result of the interaction between a small number of Native Americans and settlers, mainly through trade (Calloway, 2013, p.50). These diseases were most prevalent in trade routes and this is the main reason why the first people to get infected were often the Native Americans who lived close to these routes or in whose settlements Europeans travelled through. These individuals would in turn, as a result of other Native Americans further into the interior, end up infecting the latter; thus resulting in massive deaths from diseases which traditional Native medicine could not cure. The large number of Native Americans throughout the Americas who ended up dying did not do so because of direct interactions with European settlers, because a majority of them had not set eyes on a European before (Calloway, 2013, p.50). Instead, the diseases spread because of interactions between those Native Americans who had interacted with Europeans, and those who had not. The depopulation of some areas which came about as a result can be considered to be based, not on malice on the part of European settlers, but on the ignorance between the latter and the Native Americans concerning the dangers of European diseases. In this way, Calloway seems to blame disease, rather than the violent interactions between Europeans and Native Americans in the form of wars that would come up in later years, as the case of the loss of large populations of Native Americans.

According to Calloway, the peaceful interactions that took place between the Native Americans and European settlers tended to be based on the self-interest of the latter. This is because in their settlement of a new land, of which they were unfamiliar, they needed the Native Americans more than the Native Americans needed them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). Europeans considered Native Americans to be potential trade partners, and they actively sought to establish trade links aimed at bringing the latter into the economic system that had been established by the Europeans. Furthermore, European missionaries were eager to convert Native Americans to Christianity and these often sought to ensure that this objective was accomplished by going directly to their villages and ministering to them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). The result was that there was a significant growth of contact between these populations to such an extent that they were able to achieve a high level of cultural exchange. Thus, while some Europeans went to settle among the Native Americans, and even adopted some of their customs, some of the latter also chose to discard their own lifestyles and settle among Europeans. In this way, such scenarios as Europeans having tattooed their faces like Native Americans and Native Americans drinking tea became quite common. The creation of a hybrid society which involved the adoption of elements of both European and Native American cultures took place. Through the analysis that he makes concerning the interactions between Native Americans and Europeans, Calloway ensures that he disputes the prevalent narrative about the often hostile interactions between the settlers and the natives, and instead brings out a more positive outlook of these interactions.

Jill Lapore explores the concept of literacy and the means of transmitting history in the context of the new world. She states that the history of Native Americans has been for the most part disregarded because they did not maintain written records (Lapore, 1994). This disregard began to take place during the early European settlement of the Americas and has continued to the twenty first century where written records are considered to be the means through which history can be recorded. However, the disregard of Native American history does not take into account the fact that unlike European history, which was written down, Native American history, was kept through oral tradition. These oral traditions have instead come to be regarded as myths because there are no contemporary written records to verify their authenticity. Lapore points out that in the seventeenth century, there were a significant number of literate Native Americans who lived in European settlements and who could have written the oral histories of their people (Lapore, 1994). However, not record is made of any attempt having been made to put down these histories. Lapore suggests that the main reason behind this lack of written history of the Native Americans is that in order to achieve literacy, Native Americans were required to completely discard the traditions of their own people and instead adopt the Europeans lifestyle. This meant having to adopt Christianity, speak English, and live in European settlements. The result was that many of these individuals ended up losing touch with their own people; instead living at the periphery of Native Americans and Europeans since they were no longer fully accepted by either (Lapore, 1994). These individuals could therefore not write down the oral histories of their people for fear of being rejected by the Europeans whose culture they had adopted.

Another aspect of Native American and European interaction is discussed by William Cronon who considers this interaction from the European standpoint. For most Europeans who settled in the new world, the vastness of the land and its wilderness was incomprehensible because in Europe most of the land had been utilized and the wilderness that remained was in private hands (Cronon, 2003, p.33). When they considered the Native Americans and the simple life that they led surrounded by such abundance, they came to believe that the Native Americans were lazy. Furthermore, this concept of laziness was further enhanced because it was the women, rather than the men in Native American communities who farmed while the men hunted. In Europe, it was the men’s task to farm the land; enforcing the belief that Native American men were lazy. Cronon points out that these perceptions by Europeans were wrong because Native American societies were organized differently. Native Americans often sought to use the land according to their own needs rather than using it abundantly in order to create a surplus, the way the Europeans did (Cronon, 2003, p.122). Additionally, they often sought to make sure that they utilized what they had effectively, especially in winter months when, in situations where there was impending scarcity, these people tended to choose to go hungry in order to utilize the remaining food for as long as possible. These were customs that Europeans failed to understand and would make them enforce their dominance in society in a bid to promote their own way of life, which they thought was superior.

The common perceptions concerning American history, especially its origins, should be changed. This is because despite eventual European dominance over America, American history was not made up only by the European settlers. Instead, Native Americans also made significant contributions while they too were influenced by European culture. American history can be considered as an amalgamation of these two distinct cultures, which brought about a new culture that was adapted to a new environment as a result of interactions between Native Americans and Europeans. A full understanding of American history cannot be achieved without the inclusion of the peaceful interactions that took place between Native Americans and Europeans, because the contributions of the former is one of the main factors that brought about the success of settlements, which in turn brought about American history.

References

Calloway, C.G. (2013). New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America. Boston: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cronon, W. (2003). Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang, 2003.

Lapore, J. (1994). Dead Men Tell No Tales: John Sassamon and the Fatal Consequences of Literacy. American Quarterly, 46(4): 497 – 512.

Cuba: What everyone needs to know

The Cuban starter pack

It has, over the years, become necessary to paint a vivid picture of Cuba from the time when it was still a Spanish colony through to the twenty first century and the struggles which this country and people have had to undergo in order to reach where they are today. It is necessary to use the format of asking questions and coming up with suitable answers to these questions so that a clearer picture of the true history of Cuba, without the bias which it has had to endure from some American writers. The discussion of the early liberation struggles of the people of this country against colonialism, first against Spain, and later against the United States, after the latter was awarded Cuba after winning its war against Spain is also necessary. Cuba had to suffer from decades during which the country was ruled by American backed dictators who suppressed the country’s interests in favor of their sponsors, mainly the United States and companies from this country. It is essential that a clear picture of how Cuba had to suffer land alienation as almost two thirds of the country’s land was either in the hands of private owners from the United States or in that of American corporations.

The events leading to the revolution and the American response to it that led this country to move into the Soviet sphere of influence are a direct result of American policy. The reasons for the success of the revolution despite the fact that it was often challenged by its more powerful neighbor to the north is that the revolution has proven its resilience. In addition, it is pertinent that a criticism of the American policies on Cuba after the revolution and suggestions of what the former could have done differently to ensure that it remained influential within Cuba. The six decades of the revolution should also discussed and this is coupled with a discussion of the circumstances that have ensured its survival to the present and the reasons why it did not collapse as soon as the Soviet Union, which was its main backer, did. One of the most fascinating factors concerning the Cuban revolution is the smooth transition of power from Fidel Castro to his brother Raul, and how the latter has presided over the liberalization of the economy so that the country can not only remain competitive on the world scene, but also for the benefit of the Cuban people.

Cuba: the land of contrast

The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the the people of Cuba since not only their standards of living but also their society changed for the better after the revolution. The revolution has ensured that the Cuban people are aware of each other’s equality and because of this, then they have to treat each other well, like a part of a greater family. This positive attitude towards each other it has enabled all workers within the Cuban economy to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled among the Cubans is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing because it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure. It is through the revolution that the Cubans became, for the first time, a united nation which was not divided by class or by interference from foreign countries such as the United States. It is only after the revolution that the Cubans came to identify their country as their own and this has created a strong nationalist feeling among them that is hard to match anywhere else in the world. The fact that the revolution has managed to survive for this long can be attributed in part to the strong sense of ownership that the Cubans have towards the revolution.

One of the legacies of the revolution is that of the achievement of literacy for all Cubans and because of this, Cuba is currently the only country in the world which has achieved a hundred percent literacy for all its citizens and all Cubans of any age have at least a basic education, a feat which even the United States, a long term rival of the revolution, has yet to achieve. The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women throughout the economy and this has been because of the belief that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is hardly any task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and in addition to the total literacy rate, the Cuban revolution has not only achieved universal healthcare for all its people, but it has also been able to develop one of the best medical healthcare systems in the world, another feat that it has accomplished without the advantages other countries have and despite the American attempts to stifle the revolution through the imposition of the trade embargo. The resilience of the Cuban revolution has also been able to raise the image of its leader, Fidel Castro, who is looked upon as a larger than life personality and who has been a thorn in the side of the United States for over five decades.

The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba and it has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. According to the book, the United States is the biggest threat to the achievements of life which the new order after the revolution has brought for the Cuban people. There has always been a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have, an action which would more likely than not destroy the achievements that have been made by Cuba so far. The obsession with Cuba which has been displayed by successive American administrations shows just how potent the revolution has become and this has been the main reason for the imposition of the trade embargo over this country. The irrational fear of the Cuban revolution by the United States government and the policies which have been adopted against it have ensured that this island nation has not had the opportunity to develop its potential to the fullest. However, despite the hostility from the United States, the Cuban revolution was able to have a lot of influence on the world scene as seen in its involvement in the protection of the government of the newly independent African country of Angola from Apartheid sponsored rebels.

Cuba was able to send more than thirty thousand troops to aid the ailing African nationalist government and it is partially because of this action that part of the military power of the oppressive Apartheid South African regime was destroyed. Furthermore, the Cuban revolution attempted to aid other countries such as Congo and Bolivia in their bid to have their own revolutions, although the latter was not successful. The book comes to the conclusion that the United States has for a long time been unfair towards the revolution through its policies and expresses the desire for better relations with Cuba especially during the Obama administration.

Mfecane: The wars that shaped Southern and Eastern Africa

Mfecane refers to the numerous wars that were started by the Ndwandwe king Zwide and spread to the rest of the African societies in Southern Africa at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Therefore, the statement that the mfecane was largely a Zulu affair is not true considering that their activities were mainly concentrated in the Natal area while the Mfecane itself occurred in a far wider range than that. Furthermore, most evidence points to the fact that the Zulu only got involved in the mfecane when it was at its climax. The mfecane began in the later part of the eighteenth century when the process of nation building among the Nguni of the northern Natal region began. The larger political units that came from this development were partly due to the competition for the control over the lucrative trade in ivory with the Portuguese based in the Delagoa Bay. 

Moreover, the population pressure among the Northern Nguni people led to the increased competition for resources because the effect of white pressure on the frontier of the Cape colony had, by the end of the eighteenth century, made expansion in a westerly direction impossible. In the years around 1803, there was a long and severe drought which sparked the unprecedented competition between the emerging states for control over good pastureland and other essential resources. The conflict between three main groups of the northern Nguni namely the Ndwandwe, the Ngwane, and the Mthethwa brought about the mfecane, the first of which was between the Ndwandwe of Zwide and the Ngwane of Sobhuza , the latter who after being defeated, moved further north where the Swazi nation was to be eventually established. Contrary to the popular opinion among the proponents of the old paradigm concerning the mfecane, it was the Ndwandwe rather than the Zulu who initiated the climax of the mfecane by attacking the Ngwane of Matiwane. When the Matiwane and his Ngwane were driven from their home by the Ndwandwe, they began a career of conquest and terror against the communities they encountered. They surprised and defeated the Hlubi, killing their chief Mpangazitha, defeated the Tlokwa, and forced Moshoeshoe of the Sotho to pay tribute to them.

It should be noted that the first known recorded history of the mfecane was written, not by the Africans themselves, but by Afrikaans and English speaking writers. Most of these histories were written with the idea of European superiority in mind hence the portrayal of Africans as savages. The Zulu serve as an example of this mindset with their portrayal as the originators of the mfecane despite overwhelming evidence on the contrary. One would agree with Julian Cobbing’s argument that the role played by the Zulu in the events known as the mfecane were minimal at best and that the emergence of the Zulu kingdom was a result rather than a cause of this period of upheavals. The Zulu kingdom was one of the defensive states such as the Sotho, the Swazi, and the Pedi kingdoms that emerged due to the mfecane. The so called acts of aggression by the Zulu against other groups were merely measures of defence; attacks to defend themselves against future aggression. If the states surrounding the Zulu had been allowed to become too powerful, then the nation would have been destroyed.

Although the Zulu were not responsible for the mfecane, their military innovations like the use of the short broad bladed stabbing spear which allowed them to close in on their enemies instead of standing off from them, as well as their discarding of their ox hide sandals in battle, gave them superior speed making the mfecane wars even more devastating. The rise of the Zulu came at a time when large states were necessary to protect people from enemy attack. An example of these is the Mthethwa who, after their defeat by the Ndwandwe, turned to the only person in the region who had the ability to defend them against their enemies, and this was Shaka. It was this choice which brought about the ascendancy of the once insignificant Zulu. The Zulu, therefore, did not contribute to the chaos surrounding them but instead brought order in the Natal region with the creation of their state, the forceful absorption of weaker groups, as well as the destruction of the more aggressive ones like the Ndwandwe state.

Eddie Mabo

Eddie Mabo was an Australian man who played a crucial role in the recognition of the right of the indigenous people to own the land in the country. He was born in the Torres Strait Islands in 1936 and it was one of his fundamental beliefs that the land upon which he was born belonged to him and his people. An indigenous Australian, he displayed an astute knowledge of the fact that the land upon which he was born was rightfully indigenous, and that the laws that had been instituted by the colonial settlers and their government did the indigenous people a great injustice. For almost a decade, this man fought for the rights of his people by taking a case to court with the intention of having it overturn the terra nullius land system in Australia which alienated the indigenous people from their land. The sheer determination of this man, against all odds, ensured that he had one of the greatest wins in Australian history for an indigenous person, because the ruling made, overturning the terra nullius system, ensured that over three hundred years of injustice had almost come to an end. The overturning of this system further granted the indigenous people the confidence of identifying themselves with the land of their ancestors and ensured that their right to it was recognized beyond doubt. Eddie Mabo was a man who rose from humble origins as a gardener to becoming one of the national icons of Australia because of the fact that he was deeply involved in fighting for the rights of his people.

While he was born in the Torres Strait Islands, Mabo spent most of his life in Queensland, and was in fact not a well known figure in his home island until after he took his case on indigenous land rights to court. It was only after his death from cancer as well as the court victory over the land issue five months later that his fellow indigenous people on the island welcomed his as one of their own. His victory did not only affect the people of his home island but also all the indigenous people of Australia and this is the reason why Mabo has become one of the most respected men among them. The idea that an indigenous person could almost singlehandedly challenge the Australian status quo and gain a great victory from it was one of those instances which were unheard of in the history of this country. The indigenous people had long been suppressed by the colonial government, and later by the white settlers who dominated and continue to dominate almost every aspect of life in Australia. Mabo’s posthumous court victory ensured that the indigenous people were recognized as a legitimate part of the Australian population with the same rights as those who dominated the society. Furthermore, it may have played a role in the recognition of indigenous people as reasoning human beings who had, throughout the history of the colonization of Australia had been treated unfairly; the court case was therefore the first step in correcting the injustice done to them.

The overturning of the terra nullius policy can be said to be, in reality, a policy of inclusion whose purpose is to ensure that all the Australian people have an equal chance to compete in making their dreams and aspirations come true. Previously, indigenous groups were completely excluded from the majority of economic activities in Australia except for those which were considered to be labor intensive. Moreover these groups were rarely ever accepted in the mainstream Australian life, therefore, Mabo’s court victory can be said to have been a step towards the inclusion of the indigenous people into the center of Australian society. From the very beginning of the Mabo’s case in court, there has been opposition towards it with those against it stating that it is giving an unfair advantage to minority groups over other people in Australia. Those who are opposed to the overturning of the terra nullius system further state that this action went against the proper way of Australian life because of the belief that did not treat all people equally, and instead it gives unfair privileges to those people who would otherwise not have deserved them. These arguments are not very logical considering the injustices which were committed against the indigenous Australian groups in the past. The white population in Australia has been, for a long time, dominant, and Mabo’s court victory was a direct challenge to this status. This may help to explain why Mabo’s grave was vandalized and racist terms painted all over it. This vandalism forced the exhumation of his body and its reburial in his ancestral home in the Torres Strait; a place for whose people he had fought for and won the right to own the land upon which they had lived from time immemorial.

Mabo’s court victory has over the last two decades come to have a significant impact on the people of the islands where he was born. Among the most significant aspects of this has been the recognition that the indigenous people were greatly marginalized in matters concerning health when compared to the mainstream Australian population. This has led to the improvement of the healthcare facilities which are available for them, ensuring a higher life expectancy than in previous years. The declining child death rates has led to a decline in the birth rates, because parents are now more secure because they know that there are enough resources available today to ensure that their children survive. Another reason for this is the fact that the economic conditions prevalent in the indigenous Australian society today do not allow parents to have more than a few children at a time because they cannot afford to have more even if they wanted to. This results in not only fewer children, but it also means that there are fewer ties to the extended family and this in turn means that in subsequent generations, there will be fewer uncles, aunts and cousins, on whom to rely, than in previous generations.

The life expectation of native Australians between the years 1991 and 1996 was projected to be fifty six and sixty one years for men and women in that order. This was found to be considerably lower than that of the mainstream population which was estimated to be between 75 and 91 years for men and women respectively. Furthermore, it was found that the death rate among many indigenous people was at a much higher rate than those of the mainstream Australian population. In fact, the death rate was so high that that they exceeded the general Australian population in every age group that was analyzed. Most of the people from indigenous populations died before reaching the age of fifty, and this was attributed to the lack of the proper healthcare facilities that other Australians have access to. The indigenous population has been completely marginalized in all matters concerning health and this has contributed a great deal in the high mortality rates among them, just when they are at their prime. It has been found that one of the leading causes of death among this population are cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, and these made up 75% of all the deaths that were reported within this population. The rates of hospitalization was much higher among the indigenous people than that of the general Australian public, with these being much higher in all the age groups that were assessed.

While Mabo’s court victory may have been the first step towards the improvement of the lives of the indigenous people, there is still a lot to be done to achieve this objective. Racism is still as prevalent as it was before the ruling, as seen when Mabo’s grave was vandalized just one day after his funeral with racist terms being painted all over his headstone. In addition, the health status of indigenous people, for whom Mabo fought, while it has improved somewhat, still has a long way to go before it can reach the status that the other Australians enjoy. Life expectancy is still low, with many indigenous people not living to be more than fifty years old, an occurrence which is a great tragedy in a country which prides itself in being one of the most developed in the world. The fact that an indigenous person had to go to court in order to get basic land rights for its people shows just how ironic Australian democracy is because it favors those people of Caucasian descent more than the natives of the land. This has created a situation where the latter are dominated completely and they have little say in their own destiny. It is to either bow to the status quo or risk the continued marginalization of their society. This is something which should not be accepted, not only by the indigenous people themselves, but also by the government because the latter should be at the forefront of protecting the rights of the indigenous people. The indigenous people should also fight for their own rights because not to do so would mean that their situation will not be recognized, hence a solution will not be attained. It such a thing was to happen, then the legacy of such indigenous men as Eddie Mabo would be forever tarnished.

Filial Piety in Korea

Filial piety is one of the most fundamental concepts in many cultures in the world, and it has existed in these societies since time immemorial. While this is the case, this concept has come to fall into disuse since the beginning of the spread of the era of globalization. This is because of the fact that many of the young people are slowly becoming independent and they do not observe the traditional way of life like they once used to.  While this has been the case elsewhere, it does not apply to Korea, where the idea of filial piety is still extremely strong and it is, in fact, one of the strongest ideals of the nation. Korea has been greatly influenced by Confucian thought concerning filial piety, which according to this philosophy is not only a virtue through the showing of respect for one’s parents, but it is also a means through which one shows respect for one’s ancestors.

According to the Confucian thought, it is one’s duty to be good to his or her parents, to take care of them, and to display good behavior both within and without the home so that the ancestors and parents can have a good name or standing in society. Furthermore, it is one’s duty to ensure that one does one’s job well so that material means can be acquired to ensure that one’s parents are well taken care of and that sacrifices have been provided for the ancestors. Filial piety requires an individual not to be rebellious towards his parents and it also requires him to show love not only for his parents but also for his siblings as well. One of the duties of filial piety also requires an individual to give wise advice to his parents in case they are involved in activities which are unrighteous. It is an individual duty to ensure that they display sorrow in case of his parent’s sickness or death, and carry out sacrifices for them after they die.

In Korea, filial piety is considered to be one of the basic tenets of society because it is said that the family, not the individual, is the basic unit of the nation. Because of this, morality is said to come from directly from the family and as such, filial piety plays an extraordinarily important role. Filial piety is what brings order within the family because it establishes the necessary hierarchy for the survival of the nation. A strong family is one which has abundance of filial piety and in Korea; it is the basic responsibility of its entire people to observe it. This idea is taught to all the children in the nation and this process has been ongoing for many centuries since its founding. It is an idea which many are taught to take to heart and observe all their lives. the power of this idea is so great that it is believed that the observance of filial piety is what determines whether the nation can be governed or not. If families can not be governed, then the nation too would be ungovernable. Filial piety is in Korea is also believed to be a major contributing factor to peace since filial duty within families is believed to be a source of peace in society.

One of the aspects of filial piety is devotion, and this implies that children are required to be devoted not only to their parents but also to their ancestors. In the traditional Korean society, for example, all children were required to live with their parents until such a time as they got married. Even though this was the case, even after marriage, it was the responsibility of the oldest son to live with and continue taking care of the parents until they met their deaths. With the coming of the modern age, however, this has changed since the old lifestyle of a large family living in a large house has changed considerably. Nowadays, families live in small apartments which would make one’s living with one’s parents impractical once they reach adulthood. The younger generation is becoming more independent as they move out of their parents’ home and start living their own lives. Despite this, many children still observe filial piety and they still come home often to fulfill their filial duties to their parents because it is still a powerful force in their lives. In Korea, it is a fact that those people who work in any sector of the economy have to fulfill their filial duties if they want to have success in their work. Those who are known not to perform their filial duties despite their excellence in their work tend to be passed over in promotions, and in some cases even end up losing their jobs because Koreans have no respect for such people.

Hierarchy is extremely essential in Korean society because it is believed that a hierarchical structure is immensely important for the stability of society. Filial piety is considered to be one of the most vital factors that determine this structure since the basic component of Korean society is the family. In the modern Korean society, children are supposed to make time for their parents even if they live a long distance away from them. It is not uncommon for people to travel at least once a year to the home of their eldest brother so that they can be able to spend time with their parents and siblings. On such occasions, it can be observed that the younger generations show immense respect for their elders, performing all the duties that are required of them. The elders, on the other hand, acknowledge what their children and grandchildren do for them with the dignity that their status affords them. Such gestures of respect as allowing the elders to enter a room first before the younger generation are strictly observed because not to do so would be a sign of great impropriety on the part of the younger generation. In this way, filial piety in Korea is still strong and this ideal is likely to continue for many generations to come.

Oka Conflict in Canada

The Oka conflict which took place in Quebec in 1990 is considered to be among the most prominent show of Native fight for their land rights in Canada. This is mainly because of the fact that it was a protest against the government of Oka’s decision to expand a golf course into land claimed by the Mohawk people without even consulting the latter and ignoring their pleas. The members of the Mohawk community who led the protests and established barricades barring any form of construction from taking place were labeled as being savages and individuals who spread chaos in the town by a significant population of the town of Oka. The racist remarks, which were made towards these individuals, who were only protecting their environment and land rights from destruction, led to the realization that despite the advancement of the Canadian society, racism was still prevalent within a significant portion of its white population. The media also played a role in downplaying the events which took place during the Oka conflict and he suggests that the media did so mainly because it was an issue involving the natives of the land. The lack of importance that was normally given to the concerns and issues involving the First Nations of Canada may have prompted the media to act the way it did because it was believed to be just another skirmish which would be quickly be resolved. However, he concludes that despite everything, the media also worked towards exposing the crisis on the world stage and this enabled the Canadian government to come to a peaceful resolution of the conflict with the Mohawk people whose rights had been violated.

Had the government been more diligent in its duties towards the First Peoples and the conservation of their environment as well as the protection of their land rights, this confrontation would never have happened. In addition, he states that the actions taken by the mayor of Oka from calling in the police and military forces to deal the situation created a situation where the government turned its military forces towards fighting domestic protestors instead of its main duty of dealing with external threats. The Oka conflict proved to be a turning point in the relationship between the Natives and the Canadian government because the latter came to recognize the importance of having native support before embarking on any projects that were to be conducted on land and reserves claimed by them. The confrontation at Oka marked a turning point in the relationship between the native and non-native people of Canada and this is mainly because it acted as a prelude to further conflicts of their kind in the rest of the country over native land rights and usage. Most of the places where these confrontations took place were not only burial grounds for the native people, but also pristine natural environments which had lain undisturbed for generations. The fight by native people to conserve these areas were the reason for the confrontations which took place because the Canadian government only considered the economic gains from developing these areas and not the deprivation of native rights and degradation of the environment.

The Oka conflict and its aftermath was the beginning of the reconciliation between the rights of the natives and those of the non-natives of Canada. It led to the development of a national dialogue concerning the rights of natives and the need to preserve these rights against any form of economic considerations which might be harmful not only to them but also to their environment. The fact that this and other events took place because of the threat to their land rights and usage ensured that all the parties involved had to come to terms concerning the best way through which the land issue in Canada would be solved. This has come to significantly affect the formulation of government policies towards the environment as well as the native people. Martin declares that the native people of Canada, as a result of these conflicts, have come to be more involved in their own government, with a reduction in their isolation in government, and an increase in programs intended for their empowerment. The fact that these people are being brought into active political life is a clear picture of a change in the Canadian government policy where the process of assimilation is reduced in favor of one of acceptance. The government has come to the realization that the integration of the native peoples in the entire country is important since they represent the cultural heritage of the nation.

After the Oka protests took place, the government came to reverse its methods of dealing with the native people within the country. She considers the fact that while in the past, the government often pursued a policy based on assimilation among the native communities, because of the belief that the latter’s way of life was inferior, this has slowly changed. This is because it has come to be realized that the native are an integral part of the country and that through the Canadian government’s protecting of their rights, interests, as well as their way of life, it is also playing a role in ensuring that its interests in the entire country where natives are present, are protected. In addition,  the Canadian government has set out to work in partnership with the native communities in an attempt to ensure that its position among them is strengthened through the lessening of any antagonism between it and these communities; instead embracing a new spirit of cooperation between them. This has ensured that the land and environmental rights of the native people of Canada have come to be respected and protected by the government.

School Ties (1992)

School Ties is movie that seeks to address the anti-Semitism prevalent among the upper classes of American society, as seen in the exclusive learning institutions. This anti-Semitism is displayed through the story of a young Jewish man who is awarded a scholarship to a prestigious school that is essentially WASP dominated. This scholarship is awarded to him not because he would have otherwise been allowed into the school, but because of the fact that he is extremely good at football. His being allowed into the school is for him to be used as a quarterback to ensure that the school wins the competition. The administration of the school, despite the fact that it is as anti-Semitic as most of the students who attend it decide to allow the young man, David, into the football team on condition that he does not reveal his religion to anyone. This movie is the story of how David struggles with his conscience in order to attain recognition from his colleagues as well as acceptance. By hiding his religion, he manages to attain everything he wishes for because his fellow teammates not only accept him, but his prowess in the field enables him to attain stardom. His popularity is enables him to mingle freely with those students who come from more privileged backgrounds from his, and despite the initial jealousy towards him, Charlie Dillon, who had been put aside in favor of David, comes to become his friend. At this moment, David has reached the apex of his popularity and acceptance within this institution.

Things, however, begin to go wrong for David when he comes to discover that the school’s administration is just as bigoted as the rest of the students in the institution. When he misses an important Jewish festival for the sake of a match, he is found by the principal praying privately and the remarks the latter makes are certainly not flattering. In addition, David becomes attracted to and starts seeing Charlie’s girlfriend behind his back, and the jealousy which the latter feels leads him to seek David’s destruction. When he finds out, by chance, from a member of staff that David is Jewish; all hell breaks loose as Charlie spreads the word among the other students. David suddenly falls from grace, as he comes from being one of the most popular people in the school to being the most discriminated against. Even his own roommate ends up avoiding him. His girlfriend, who had only been a part of his life just because he was popular also, leaves him and in the end, he is left in a lonely place, with no one around to support him. All the discrimination that he faces is not because he is any different from his fellow students, but because of his religious beliefs, because he is a Jew. This discrimination sends a powerful message to the American society, that anti-Semitism is not the way of the American society. The anti-Semitism that is prevalent should be avoided because Jews are not beasts but human beings who have feelings and emotions. Their religious beliefs should not be a reason for the harsh treatment which they receive.

Charlie, always the underachiever who tries to uphold his family’s reputation in the school, decides to cheat in an exam and drops the piece of paper he was using on the floor. The teacher notices this paper and asks whoever dropped it to confess otherwise, the entire class would be failed. David and Rip are the only ones who know that Charlie is the culprit but they choose to keep quiet. Charlie takes advantage of this, and probably because of his hostility towards David, denounces him. Despite the fact that he is obviously innocent, his being a Jew condemns him because everyone prefers to believe that one of them would never cheat in an exam. Rip, however, takes the initiative and tells the principal the truth, therefore saving David from expulsion. It is at the principal’s office that David comes to the realization that no matter what he does in the school, he will never get the acceptance and recognition of any of the people within it. he realizes that since he is being used to advance the school’s football team,, he should also use the school to advance himself in life. The final part of the movie is based on the empowerment which David attains when he stops to care what other people think about him, and instead, he comes to put his own personal interests first.

Gran Torino (2008)

Gran Torino is a film that depicts the relationship between Walt Kowalski, a Korean War veteran who has been recently widowed, and Thao Vang Lor, a young neighbor of Hmong origins. The anger and bitterness that Walt feels towards the world and his family dives him towards living a lonely life alienated from almost everyone else. Thao is a young man who seeks to join a gang led by his cousin with the latter encouraging him to steal Walt’s Ford Gran Torino as an initiation ritual into the gang. When Walt foils his attempt, he and Thao end up developing a wary friendship with the former acting as a mentor for the young man. This is a story that shows the life that ethnic minorities in the United States have to live because they have very few opportunities to ensure that they improve the circumstances in their lives. Gran Torino is a film that seeks to ensure that there is recognition of the cultural diversity that exists in the United States and the need for there to be cultural understanding in order for social cohesion to take place. The multicultural relationship between Walt and Thao can be considered to be an illustration of what can be achieved through cultural understanding while Walt’s family’s seeming disapproval of the Hmong’s community attending Walt’s funeral can be considered to be a sign of the cultural alienation that Hmong in the United States have experienced since their arrival. Gran Torinoallows for a unique view of the Hmong community in the United States as well as advocates for a need for the development of cultural cohesion in the nation.

One of the most important cultural relationships that are depicted in Grand Torino is that between Walt, Thao and Thao’s Hmong family. Walt, a recently widowed white American, ends up striking a friendship with Thao’s family and becomes a mentor for Thao and his sister Sue. Sue also helps Walt learn Hmong culture and this cultural understanding brings him even closer to the Vang Lor family as well as to the rest of the Hmong community in the neighborhood. Furthermore, it should be noted that Sue goes against cultural isolation through her choosing to date Trey; a young white man. Walt becomes so involved with the Vang Lor family to such an extent that they become closer to him than his own family: the latter who he considers to be emotionally detached from him with their only interest being on his estate. Walt’s involvement with the Hmong community also opens his eyes to the cultural diversity that is present in his neighborhood and this allows him to ensure that he not only feels like a part of this community, but also seeks to protect them from Spider’s gang.

The process of acculturation is one where communities, mainly migrant, adapt to the culture of their new countries in order to fit in with the rest of society. This is normally done in a diverse number of ways from matters concerning diet to such aspects as language and names. In Gran Torino, it should be noted that a significant number of individuals in the Hmong community have come to adopt diverse aspects of American culture. Among these, as seen in this film, is that of dating, where both Thao and his sister Sue date; a situation which is not common in Hmong culture. Another aspect of culture that is seen in this film is enculturation, which is a situation where individuals learn the requirements of a new culture and adapt to aspects of its language and rituals to ensure social acceptance. This is the case with Walt who, with Sue’s help, seeks to ensure that he learns aspects of Hmong culture in order to better interact with the community.

Cultural relativism is the judging of an alien culture through its own understanding of its practices rather than one’s own. This is opposed to ethnocentrism which is the judgment of a different culture based on one’s own cultural perspective. Subcultures are the practices conducted by a small group of individuals in a bid to ensure that they differentiate themselves from the larger cultural grouping. In Gran Torino, all these aspects of culture are dealt with, as seen through cultural relativism where Sue encourages Walt to develop and understanding of Hmong culture. This is in contrast with Walt’s previous opinion of his Hmong neighbors where he often judged them based on his own culture and cared nothing for them. A sub-cultural perspective is where Spider’s gang conducts its own rites of initiation into the group and acts to punish those it believes are turning away from its culture. This is especially the case with the gang’s attempt to punish Thao for failing in stealing the Ford Gran Torino that would have allowed him to join the gang.

In conclusion, the discussion above has sought to show that Gran Torino is a film that portrays the diverse aspects of culture in the United States. Most of the instances that take place within this film are based on culture and its aspects such as ethnocentrism, acculturation, enculturation, as well as subculture. All of the latter are shown in the film through the interactions that take place between Walt, the Vang Lor family, and Spider’s gang and this ensures that there is greater cultural understanding; especially in relation to Hmong American culture. The film shows that cultural isolation is detrimental to individual development, as seen in the hostile attitude that Walt has towards his neighbors before the beginning of his interaction with the Vang Lor family and Hmong culture. Therefore, one would suggest that Gran Torino is a film that seeks to show how greater cultural interaction between the mainstream and minority cultures in the United States would allow for greater social development. Not only would it bring out the best of these cultures, but it would also lead to a situation where there is an advancement of social cohesion which is a desirable trait in any nation.

Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)

Fahrenheit 9/11 is a 2004 documentary directed by Michael Moore in a bid to create awareness concerning the events leading to the 9/11 attacks and their aftermath. It is specifically intended for the American public especially when one considers that it was released during an election year. The audience of this documentary is treated to massive revelations concerning the manner through which the Bush administration has been compromised through the President’s looking after his personal interests instead of those of the American people. This documentary was intended to steer public anger against president Bush to such an extent that he was not reelected but this turned out not to be the case since he won the elections.

This documentary was developed for the purpose of ensuring that the American public as well as the rest of the world was made aware of events leading to the 9/11 attacks as well as its having occurred because of the connections between the Bush, Saud and Bin Laden families. This can be considered to be a political documentary whose main reason was to ensure the President Bush was not reelected for another term as president of the United States. The main message that this film attempts to get to its audience is that the Bush administration had lost all credibility to lead the nation and had to be voted out of office. Furthermore, the documentary attempts to show that the 9/11 attacks were a conspiracy developed to ensure that an environment of fear was developed in the country to such an extent that the Bush administration was able to pursue its political agenda in the global arena. The war on terror is presented as a cover for a sinister plot between the Bush family and its allies to ensure that they have control over resources in the Middle East at the cost of the lives of numerous American servicemen and women.

I knew nothing concerning the subject of the documentary prior to viewing it and what I found out was quite interesting. The issue of the 9/11 attacks having been a conspiracy was the farthest thing from my mind because of my constant belief that they were merely terrorist attacks perpetrated by the al Qaeda network. When I first went to see the documentary, I expected it to elaborate on the events leading to the 9/11 attacks as well as a background of the perpetrators. Furthermore, I expected it to document the progress made by the government in the war on terror and how it was gathering information concerning the eventual capture of Osama bin Laden. However, once I saw the documentary, I was surprised at the different subject matter that it covered and it brought to the fore many questions among which was whether the people of the United States are as free as they believe they are. Furthermore, my curiosity concerning the controversies surrounding the 9/11 attacks was aroused because I came to view them from a very different perspective from what I had gotten used to.

The main subject of Fahrenheit 9/11 are the 9/11 attacks and the events which took place prior, during, and after they happened. This documentary show that the Bush, Bin Laden, and Saud families had a long business relationship spanning decades and because of this, they had developed fast friendships. There is an implication that these three families were responsible for staging the 9/11 attacks to create an excuse for the American military machine to be used in attaining their political and economic interests in the Middle East. The documentary makes a display of the realities of the war on terror and how recruiters are used by military to bring in individuals from poor backgrounds to fight in Iraq and Afghanistan. Moore shows that despite its being widely touted as a war on terror, the main intention of this war is to ensure that there are further limitations to the freedoms of American people while at the same time working for the economic interests of a limited number of people. The documentary is filmed in the United States while there is footage from other parts of the world in an attempt to put flesh on its subject matter.

Moore makes constructive uses of sound effects in order to make the audience feel the sinister nature of the documentary’s subject. When he describes the manner through which a conspiracy is hatched to deprive Americans of their freedoms, the sound effects in the background enhance this and make the audience fear for their freedoms. In cases where interviews are being conducted, the lighting is quite sharp and this is used as a means of showing the audience the seriousness of what the interviewees are saying. However, when sinister connections between individuals are displayed, the images are darkened and this evokes an eerie feeling within the person watching the documentary. Important images throughout the documentary are brought into sharp focus especially where Moore is attempting to display such instances as where he is denied access to certain places. The interviews are quite interesting because Moore deals with individuals in a more or less informal manner, making them more comfortable and resulting in their saying more than they normally would have.

The part which I liked the most was that which showed President Bush at a classroom in an elementary school after being told that the World Trade Center had been hit by a plane. The moments that he sat still without taking any action seem to suggest that he may have been party to the attacks taking place. In addition, the documentary provides very important lessons one of which is that there is no need for certain legislation, such as the Patriot Act to be passed out of fear rather than being though through carefully. One of the issues which surprised me in the documentary was the association between the Bush and Bin Laden families which had spanned decades; a fact which I did not know before watching Fahrenheit 9/11. However, a drawback occurs where individuals such as President Bush, who are its subjects, are not interviewed in order to give their side of the story and this creates a situation where the documentary can be considered to be one-sided. Despite this, Fahrenheit 9/11 is a documentary which I would be glad to recommend from my friends because it is one which will open their eyes to the workings of the world and show them that not everything is what it seems.

African Americans and Japanese Americans During WWII and its Aftermath

African Americans and Japanese Americans had a long history of discrimination in the country and this became worse during and after the Second World War when many of them came to be segregated along racial lines. The history of discrimination against these two communities tended to be extreme because they were treated as lesser human beings who had no rights. Therefore, despite having been in America for several generations already, these groups came to face many challenges especially during the war and post-war period.

When the African Americans who had been to the war returned home, they came with new ideas acquired from their experiences in the warzone in Europe. While they were in Europe, they had been treated on an equal basis by the white people of that continent and this made them realise their rights as human beings. Those from the south had a new mindset which would eventually lead them to ensuring that their rights as human beings were respected and that the Jim Crow South did not remain as it had been previously.

The fact that African Americans came to realise their rights and demanded them did not go down well within the white dominated society. This period came to see heavy attacks on the African Americans by the white establishment, especially in the south where many were attacked in broad daylight in full view of the police who did nothing to protect these people (Hobson, 356). It was the escalation of these attacks as well as the discrimination in other sectors of the social and economic life of the United States that there developed the Civil Rights Movement whose main purpose was to fight for the rights of the African Americans.

After the Pearl Harbour attacks in the United States, where the Imperial Japanese navy attacked the United States on its own soil, it was the Japanese Americans who came to face the brunt of the public anger that developed. The Japanese Americans were innocent of any involvement in these attacks yet they were increasingly viewed with suspicion by the mainstream American society. This situation became worse once the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, since the Japanese Americans were made to leave their homes and moved into detention camps because of the suspicion that there were Japanese spies among them (Staub 1238).

The fact that they were detained by their own government despite having lived in the United States for generations and having broken all ties with Japan was a sign that they had not been fully accepted into American society. Those who were detained in these camps, when eventually set free, were much traumatised because they failed to see the reason why they had been detained in the first place. Just because they looked different form the rest of the American people and that their ancestors originally came from a country which had attacked the United States was not a valid reason for their discrimination and this they came to realise as a violation of their fundamental rights as Americans.

Were Atrocities Committed in Vietnam?

The United States throughout its history has gone to war starting with its war of independence until most recently, the war in Iraq and Afghanistan. In most of the wars that it has been involved in, there have been claims that the United States military has committed atrocities against the civilian populations of the countries it has invaded. The reports of such atrocities have been reported during the following instances: the Philippine-American war; the Second World War; the Korean War; the Vietnam War; in Yugoslavia in 1999; and finally, during the War on Terror. In this paper, we shall discuss some American atrocities committed during the Vietnam War with specific emphasis on the crimes committed against the noncombat civilian population within Vietnam.

Atrocities such as the killing of noncombat civilians or the torture of prisoners occur in all wars but that it became a particular issue in the Vietnam War. Violence against the civilians of Vietnam by the American military was an intentional act of war and they acted with indifference to the destruction of noncombatants and to that of their property. Most of the military commanders of the United States were aware of the laws governing ground warfare that had been established by various international agreements but atrocities were still committed by some American soldiers and officers. Throughout the entire war, only two hundred and seventy eight soldiers and marines were convicted of murder, rape, and other violent crimes by the military justice system but many more incidents went unpunished or were not even reported. The policy of heavy bombing by in South Vietnam with high explosives and napalm by American forces to support ground operations in and around villages and the widespread use of artillery for the same purpose generated many accidental civilian casualties.

The United States military used herbicides and defoliants as part of its herbicidal warfare in Vietnam, and one of these, known as Agent Orange, was used extensively from 1961 to 1971 in South Vietnam and in portions of North Vietnam. At the time the herbicides were being used, there was little consideration within the American military about the potential long term effects of the widespread use of Agent Orange towards the Vietnamese population. It is further unclear exactly where in Vietnam the Agent Orange herbicides were sprayed and the amount sprayed at each location and this has ensured that virtually every aspect of the effects of this herbicide in Vietnam is infused with uncertainty. These herbicides were used on the crops of the Vietnamese civilians so that the crops could die causing mass starvation. The American army commanders mistakenly believed that starvation would force the Vietnamese population to support the American backed South Vietnamese regime but this turned out to be counterproductive because instead the people lost all confidence in the southern government and secretly supported the North. Another major result of the use of these herbicides was the mass starvation that occurred after their use and a lot of the civilian population, which had nothing to do with the war, died in the resulting famine.

It was the fear, anger, and incentive for promotion or commendation for a high body count (which was a requirement by the military at the time) that led the American soldiers to an over application of their weaponry which constituted atrocities against the civilian population. Individual Vietnamese and sometimes even entire villages could be killed because they were suspected of being the enemy or in certain incidents; they were simply killed just because they got in the way. The Vietnam war, with its tactical use of high altitude bombing and artillery fire, and the search and destroy missions resulted in mass killings. These weapons were used indiscriminately by the American military and in the process many civilians were killed accidentally. The number of these accidental killings may border in the tens of thousands because there were no statistics, whether private or official, at the time to show their extent. Furthermore, while platoons were on missions, their leaders rarely restrained them from committing such acts as would be deemed atrocities in normal human societies. One of the major and most notable of these incidents, due to the high media attention it gained, was the My Lai massacre of 1968.

The My Lai massacre in Vietnam was the mass murder of between three hundred and five hundred Vietnamese civilians in the village of Son My by American soldiers during the Vietnam War. Most of the victims of this massacre were women, children and the elderly and when investigations were carried out, some of the bodies were found to have been mutilated and many of the women had been raped preceding the killings. When news of this massacre first came to light, the army tried to deflect any concern about it by blaming it on the South Vietnamese military. This incident prompted global outrage when it became public and it increase the domestic opposition for the United State’s involvement in Vietnam. The My Lai massacre had numerous complex causes which included psychological stress on the soldiers, poor unit leadership, bad intelligence, and an overall American strategy that put more emphasis on killing than on protecting the people. The American strategy of having body counts to show their progress in their progress in the war was very detrimental to the lives of the Vietnamese civilians because they could not be differentiated from the North Vietnamese soldiers who also wore peasant clothing. This led to the American soldiers’ killing of random Vietnamese civilians on suspicion that they were enemy forces. Some soldiers, bent on having a higher body count in order to establish their reputations within the military ranks, wantonly killed Vietnamese civilians in order to raise their counts.

By its nature, atrocity defies rationality, marking the limits of understanding and he uses this to explain what happened in Vietnam. The order to kill anything that moves caused many American soldiers to commit vast and unthinkable atrocities in Vietnam. American platoons had a tendency of waylaying civilians, raping the women among them, and at times murdered them in cold blood. In certain instances, if the American soldiers did not find anybody to fight in the various villages across the countryside of Vietnam, they would instead indulge themselves by raping, torturing, and murdering the hundreds of civilians living within such villages. Most of these cases went unreported because the people of Vietnam at the time did not have did not have any legal authority they could turn to for justice because they were in the middle of a war and furthermore, the government which claimed to represent them (South Vietnam) had allied itself with a foreign power in order to maintain its authority. In fact, the South Vietnamese government actively supported the American involvement in Vietnam despite the fact that atrocities were being committed against its civilian population.

America committed genocide in Vietnam and admits that individual atrocities and war crimes did occur in that country. One would agree with Sevy’s opinion because of the statistics showing the American military casualties of the war. It is said that about fifty eight thousand United States soldiers died in the Vietnamese war and this was despite their having a weapons technology that was far superior to that of their opponents. Now that it has been determined that the Americans had superior weapons, we should now the casualties in the Vietnamese side. If the American lost nearly sixty thousand soldiers despite their superior weapons, it is only logical to assume that the Vietnamese lost many times more that number in armed forces and that would be without counting the civilian casualties of this war. The random killings that were committed by all the armed forces involved in this conflict may put the number of civilian casualties in the millions. It is my suggestion that if the Americans had not involved themselves in the war in the first place, then it would have come to a swift end much sooner than it did.

The American atrocities in Vietnam are real and that they happened on a much grander scale than have been reported. It is up to the United States government to recognize and acknowledge these atrocities and not only do so, but also apologize to the people of Vietnam for committing them. If the American government would do this, then there would definitely be an improvement in the relations between America and Vietnam which would bring them even closer than they are today. Furthermore, America would earn global respect for owning up to its failures and because of this new found respect; America would be able to retain its hegemony over the world with the good will of all the nations of the world. This would be to its advantage especially considering that new world powers, such as China, Russia, and Brazil, are rising to challenge America’s authority as the only world superpower.

A Geopolitical Profile of Russia

Introduction

Russia is one of the most influential geopolitical entities in the world today and this is mainly as a result of its unique position in the global arena. This country has been extremely influential in the Eurasian region for much of its history and this influence has not only been political, but cultural as well. The power of this state, from the time of the tsars to the post-communist world can be considered to have essentially remained intact within the region surrounding it. This country is normally ranked second only to the United States in its ability to project its power across the globe and it is mainly as a result of this that it has been able to retain its influence long after falling from its superpower status.

Geography

Russia is the largest country in the world with its borders stretching from northern Europe across northern Asia to the Bering Straits. As the largest country in the world, with an area of 17,075,400 square kilometres, it is one of the few countries in the world that have a diversity of natural resources, people, as well as neighbouring countries. The result is that this country has come to exert a lot of influence over a large territory as well as its neighbours for centuries. Its geographical position is unique because it allows it to wield some influence on three continents as well as being able to project itself militarily. Russia incorporates a wide range of climates and environments within its territory and these have had an effect on its historical development. Moreover, this country has borders with a diverse number of countries including China, Norway, Lithuania, Finland, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the United States across the Bering Straits, among many others.  The geographical position of this country has also placed it on top of the largest oil and gas reserves on the planet and this country has been able to ensure that this resource is used to further its geopolitical power over the Eurasian region. In addition to oil and natural gas, Russia has other significant resources which include deposits of timber, coal, and as well as mineral resources that have given it an advantage over other countries in the region. As the largest producer of natural gas in the world, Russia is in a unique position to determine the futures of some of its neighbouring countries, most of which were former member states of the Soviet Union. It is through its unique position as being the number one producer of natural gas, in addition to oil, that it has been able to ensure that it maintains its influence over the region because it has the funding necessary to make its influence felt. The large forests that are found in the region of Siberia are second only to the Amazon jungle in Brazil and they are believed to absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide which helps to ensure that the air in the region is kept clean. The eastern parts of Russia are relatively sparsely populated when compared to the European side which carries the bulk of the population. While this may be the case, there are a significant number of people in all its administrative regions, these being individuals who have for the most part acclimatised to the harsh climate that occurs especially in the northernmost parts of the country. While Russia has come to occupy such a large area, this was not the case in its early centuries where it was essentially divided into diverse city-states and duchies controlled by members of the Rurik dynasty. However, all this changed when these disparate city states were unified and the Russian state began its expansion in earnest during the 16th century. The result was that it ended up conquering much of the land that had once been occupied by the Mongol Golden Horde. Its occupation of new lands sealed its fate in world history because it is through its size as well as its multiethnic make up that this state has come to be recognised into the modern world. Through its new found geographical acquisitions, Russia was able to make sure that it was no longer a victim of the aggression of other European powers. Instead, its geographical position became the basis upon which its status as a great European power was established and this would continue until the fall of Communism in 1991.

History

The Russian state was established in the tenth century by a legendary group of Vikings based in Kiev and this would later expand into what came to be known as Russia. The founders of this state, according to legend, were Rurik and his brothers who would eventually end up forming the Rurik dynasty that would rule Russia until the death of Ivan the Terrible. The early Russian state was essentially a pagan one with little interaction with the outside world until Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity, thus establishing ties with the Byzantine Empire. The growth of the Russian state was brought to a sudden halt in the thirteenth century during the Mongol conquest which resulted in the sacking of Kiev. The destruction of the first Russian state led to a shift of power to Moscow, which was ruled by another Rurik prince and was a vassal of the Mongols. The vassalage to the Mongols of the Golden Horde ensured the survival of the Russian state in Moscow in the form of the Grand Duchy of Muscovy. This would eventually rise to such great prominence that it would not only overthrow Mongol rule, but would eventually evolve into the Russian Empire, encompassing all the lands of the Golden Horde. With the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks, Russia, which had also established ties through dynastic marriage, claimed to be the heir to the power and glory of Caesars. In this way, Moscow came to be considered the third Rome and its rulers began to be called Tsars, Russian for Caesar.

Russia entered the modern age under the rule of Peter the Great whose efforts were directed at making his country a truly European state. He forced the Russians to cease some of the traditions that seemed to keep them back and were considered unEuropean. Furthermore, he established a new capital closer to Europe at St. Petersburg, essentially choosing it over Moscow as the preeminent city in the Russian Empire. In addition to these efforts, Peter the Great carried out campaigns which ensured that the empire was greatly expanded while at the same time gaining political leverage with other European states through developing modern means of shipping as well as adopting the European culture, especially that of France. However, despite these efforts, Peter was not able to end one of the institutions which held Russia back from becoming one of the most powerful states in Europe, serfdom. Serfdom had existed in Russia for centuries and this institution had developed to such an extent that individuals, particularly serfs, were essentially slaves in their own land. The serfs formed the majority of the Russian population and these were tied to the land which for the most part was held by nobles or boyars; individuals who practically owned the serfs on their land. Serfdom remained a stain in Peter’s legacy and it would eventually be the motivation behind the Russian Revolution centuries later in the early twentieth century.

The Russian Revolution and the resulting civil war is one of the most significant events to have taken place in the twentieth century because it ensured the rise of communism in the former Russian Empire, which became the Soviet Union, and later across the globe. The Russian royal family was put to death and the monarchy abolished to be replaced by a communist state under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. Lenin was a charismatic leader who was a staunch believer in Marxist philosophy and sought to ensure that communism spread all over the world. His death and succession by Josef Stalin led to a new phase in the development of communism in Russia with Stalin choosing a more aggressive approach to that taken by his predecessor. He made a deal with the Nazi government in Germany for the partition of Poland and after the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union, he changed sides and joined the allies in the Second World War. The fall of Britain, Germany, and France as great powers after the Second World War paved the way for the Soviet Union to become a global superpower alongside the United States and this ushered in considerable rivalry between these states that became known as the Cold War. The power of these countries was based on their having considerable nuclear arsenals; the latter ensuring that there was no direct confrontation between these superpowers. The fall of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 was one of the most significant events in the later twentieth century because it ensured American pre-eminence in a unipolar world.

Power

Despite its loss of power after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has remained an important player in regional and global politics. One of its greatest strengths is that it has been able to maintain a level of influence over a majority of former soviet republics especially through the significant number of Russians living in these countries. Furthermore, as a result of its size as well as abundant natural resources, especially natural gas and oil, this country has been able to ensure that it exerts a level of influence over its neighbours. This is especially the case with the European Union which for years developed deals of cooperation with Russia while the latter supplied it with one third of its natural gas supplies. Under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, Russia has seen its influence rise on the global stage, with its becoming more assertive about its interests. Through its permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council, Russia has been able to ensure that it not only protects its legitimate interests, but also those of its allies. The result has been that it has increasingly cooperated with China to break the dominance of the United States and its allies over global affairs. Russia is also a nuclear state with the largest nuclear arsenal in the world and this has helped in securing its position in the globe as well as acting as a deterrent to powers that would otherwise led to its demise.

However, despite its strengths, Russia also has several weaknesses which might create a situation where it loses its geopolitical position. Among these is its overreliance on its oil and natural gas production to cater for some 50% of its budget. This overreliance on its natural resources has created a situation where Russia has essentially failed to diversify its economy and this poses a potential threat from a geopolitical perspective. Furthermore, its aggressive stance to protect its natural interests has made it a target for American and European Union sanctions with the latter seeing Russian re-emergence as a threat to their global dominance. These sanctions, imposed in 2014 at the height of the Ukraine crisis and Russian annexation of Crimea, have been harmful to the Russian economy and have led to its shrinking. The fall of global oil prices has also diminished Russia’s budgetary capabilities; hampering its continued rise as a dominant geopolitical power in the Eurasian continent.

Russia has attempted to ensure that it no longer loses its influence over former soviet republics after Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania not only joined NATO but also the European Union. This is the reason why Russia has chosen to take on a more aggressive stance because it considers NATO encroachment on its borders as a threat. The wars first in Georgia in 2008 and the ongoing Ukraine civil war are actions which have been taken by Russia to prevent former soviet republics from joining NATO. Since the return of Vladimir Putin to the Russian presidency in 2012, the relationship between Russia and the United States has soured as each has come to view each other with increasing suspicion. The mutual suspicion between these two nuclear armed states has increased tensions to almost Cold War proportions and it has led to a situation where despite not confronting each other directly, they have become involved in a proxy war in the Ukraine as well as in Syria where Russian support has ensured that Bashar Al Assad has remained in power.

Conclusion

Russia has remained a powerful actor in the Eurasian region; a factor which can be attributed to its nuclear capabilities as well as the abundance of natural resources within its borders. The size of this country has also ensured that it pursues a complex foreign policy designed to address its interests with its numerous neighbours. Russia has increasingly aligned itself with such countries as China and Iran in a bid to diminish American influence over the rest of the world and in a bid to create a multipolar world. It is yet to be seen whether its geopolitical objectives will be met in the near future amid the economic sanctions that have been enforced by the United States and its allies. The rise of Russian nationalism as a result of the Ukraine crisis has seen a level of unprecedented support for the Russian government and its actions; a situation which has ensured that the government is able to pursue its objectives internationally with the full support of a majority of the Russian populace.