Mass Incarceration in the United States

 

The United States has one of the biggest mass incarceration problems in the world. This is because a considerable part of its population, about 2.4 million are in federal, state, or local incarceration facilities (Wagner and Sakala). A consequence has been that the large population of incarcerated individuals has led to a situation where it has become the backbone of the prison industrial complex. Over the last three decades, there has been a quadrupling of the prison population of the country, and this is mainly because of the get tough on crime policy that has essentially gotten even individuals with petty crimes imprisoned. The draconian war on drugs has also contributed significantly to mass incarceration, and this has been disproportionately focused on minority and poor populations in the country. Mass incarceration has become a hallmark of the United States justice system and it has come about because of such instances as the war on drugs, and the central role of states. Furthermore, it has had a social and cultural impact on minority communities, while at the same time increasing state budgets considerably.

The war on drugs has had a significant impact in the United States because it has led to an increase in its prison population. This is especially considering that one in every a hundred American is in a prison facility (Chapman, Carey and Ben-Moshe). The prison population in this country is quite considerable and it has far exceeded those countries that have an actual drug war with cartels. The prison population of Mexico, for example, is three times less than that of the United States; a sign that the latter may have gone overboard when it comes to the enforcement of justice in society. The United States accounts for about a quarter of the world’s prison population and this is a significant status because it shows that despite the level of crimes having gone down over the years, the prison population is still on the rise. It also shows that the United States has failed to bring about reforms in its justice system to ensure that individuals who have committed petty crimes are given lighter sentences such as community service rather than being incarcerated.

American states have also played a central role in the development of mass incarceration in the country. States have for the most part been resistant to federal interference in their justice systems and this has been to such an extent that they have for the most part kept federal authorities from investigating the conditions in their prisons. A result is that states account for the majority of individuals who have been incarcerated in the country and this shows the considerable role that they have played in ensuring that individuals are incarcerated for longer periods (Campbell, Vogel and Williams 181). The establishment of policies such as mandatory minimum sentences as well as putting more people in prison for longer periods has led to a situation where the prison population has become higher than anticipated. It has also allowed for the creation of a situation where it has become difficult for proper reforms to be undertaken so that the disproportionate incarceration rate can be reduced. States have essentially failed to undertake the reforms necessary to ensure that rather than putting people away, they should be provided an opportunity for rehabilitation so that the social and economic impacts can be significantly reduced.

The cultural impact of mass incarceration on minority communities in the United States cannot be underestimated. This is because a disproportionate number of members of these communities have been incarcerated; resulting in a situation where a considerable number of these communities have been negatively affected. Some families have ended up growing up without one or both parents, and the lack of role models has led some individuals to end up dropping out of school and getting into a life of crime (Osler and Bennett 127). In addition, there have been situations where members of minority communities affected have been caught up in the cycle of endless poverty to such an extent that they do not know any other type of life. The latter situation often comes about because a majority of the most active members of the community have been incarcerated; leading these communities not to have individuals who can work and bring in stable incomes for their families. The failure by the justice system as well as the proponents of the war on drugs to consider these factors has led to an increase of the problem rather than its reduction, hence the high incarceration rate.

The increasing costs of mass incarceration have led to a situation where states are encountering tighter budgets. Governors and lawmakers have ended up in a situation where, despite their hard stance when it comes to crime, they have been forced towards promoting an increase in reforms within the criminal justice system (Mitchell and Leachman 8). This is an important step because it allows for more investment to be put in such programs as drug treatment and parole so that there can be a reduction of the number of individuals who are incarcerated for lesser crimes. Such individuals as nonviolent drug offenders should not be in prison because they only increase the burden on taxpayers. It is important that more reforms are undertaken in the criminal justice system so that it can be possible to end the problem of mass incarceration to be brought to an end. However, there is currently considerable resistance at the state level for these reforms to be undertaken and it will be a while before the idea is accepted as inevitable.

Mass incarceration is a problem in the United States that has to be tackled as soon as possible to avert a social and economic crisis. The prison industrial complex has grown considerably over the decades and it has led to special interests having a stake in it. The result is that these special interests are the ones that are resistant to much needed reforms. It is therefore important for all levels of government to consider alternative options when it comes to dealing with offenders that focus on rehabilitation rather than mass incarceration.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Campbell, Michael C, Matt Vogel, and Joshua Williams. "Historical Contingencies and the Evolving Importance of Race, Violent Crime, and Region in Explaining Mass Incarceration in the United States." Criminology 53.2 (2015): 180-203. Print.

Chapman, Chris, Allison C Carey, and Liat Ben-Moshe. "Reconsidering Confinement: Interlocking Locations and Logics of Incarceration." Disability Incarcerated. Springer, 2014. 3-24. Web.

Mitchell, Michael, and Michael Leachman. "Changing Priorities: State Criminal Justice Reforms and Investments in Education." Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. October  (2014). Print.

Osler, Mark William, and Mark W Bennett. "A'holocaust in Slow Motion?'America's Mass Incarceration and the Role of Discretion."  (2014). Print.

Wagner, Peter, and Leah Sakala. "Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie." Northampton, MA: Prison Policy Initiative  (2014). Web.

 

Use of Performance Enhancement Drugs

Introduction

Performance enhancing drugs are some of the most controversial aspects of the contemporary world and this is especially considering that it is in widely used to achieve a diverse number of goals. The users of this drug tend to have a positive aspect towards them because they are considered to be a means towards achieving their goals. This is especially the case where they are under considerable pressure to ensure that they perform to the best of their abilities. Some studies have shown that users of performance enhancing drugs are usually regular individuals who, because of the considerable pressure put on them, end up in a situation where they conclude that it would be best for them to use these drugs. In addition, while most of these drugs are readily available in pharmacies, they often require a prescription. A result is that even though they may be available, they are looked upon by most organizations, especially in sport, as promoting unfairness in diverse aspects of life, such as competitive sport. Because of this, there has been wide advocacy for their ban, especially among those individuals that participate in sport. However, there is also an opposing side that promotes the idea that in these drugs are made more widely available to ensure that there is the advancement of fairness in various activities. This paper seeks to demonstrate the circumstances leading to the use of performance enhancing drugs, the attitudes towards them in various countries, and the manner through which their effects have stirred considerable debate.

Attitudes to performance enhancing drugs

The greatest use of performance enhancing drugs takes place among university students. These individuals believe that it is a social norm to make use of drugs such as Ritalin to enhance their performance at the academic level. However, despite the use of these drugs by some students in universities, studies show that very few of them have actually made use of the drug named above (Pérez-Pazos, Collazos & Casas, 2015). The use of these drugs often takes place because of the considerable pressure that students have to undergo in order to ensure that they not only have good grades, but are also competitive in the job market once they complete their studies. A consequence of this situation is that a considerable number of students hold the belief that if they use performance enhancing drugs, they will be able to ensure that they are able to handle a diverse number of situations and challenges in their academics without having to endure the considerable pressure that comes with their studies. However, despite these efforts, the drugs that are used in an academic environment tend not to have the desired effect, especially in instances where students place too much faith in them rather and focusing on working hard towards the attainment of their academic goals. Therefore, while the use of performance enhancing drugs may be considered to be a social norm in institution of higher education, is does not serve to enhance academic performance because the individuals involved in it tend not to realize that these drugs are merely stimulants whose effects are not compatible with performance.

Performance enhancing drugs are not often used for medical reasons, and are instead gotten over the counter by those who desire to use them. A result is that in countries within the EU, there are a significant number of individuals, especially students, who opt to obtain these drugs without proper consultation with doctors. Individuals in this society have ended up in a situation where they take advantage of the ready availability of performance enhancing drugs to ensure that they acquire them for their personal use. The attitude towards these drugs show that the taboo concerning the unfairness of their use is increasingly being eroded and it is only a matter of time before it becomes a common practice. Individuals in the contemporary world seem to be taking a more relaxed attitude to performance enhancing drugs than their predecessors; a sign that attitudes are heading towards the legalization of these drugs in everyday use. Individuals in European countries such as the UK and Belgium have a positive attitude towards these drugs in comparison to Turkey, where the approval of such drugs is quite low. The cultural values of individuals in various countries seem to be extremely important in the development of attitudes towards performance enhancing drugs (Schermer, Bolt, de Jongh  & Olivier, 2009). Concepts concerning competitiveness seem to be the drivers behind the high approval ratings that are seen in the UK, while fairness is a determinant factor in the case of Turkey. The achievement of personal goals through the use of performance enhancing drugs is an essential factor in determining individuals’ attitude towards them, and this is irrespective of their country of origin.

The acceptability of using performance enhancing drugs is a feature of what can be termed as changing social norms. A majority of studies, which have been conducted in the United States, show that the number of individuals that approve of the use of performance enhancing drugs is steadily increasing, and this is especially considering that that a considerable number of people have admitted to using them once or several times in their lives (Ponnet, Wouters, Walrave, et al., 2015). Among the most significant considerations when it comes to the use of these drugs is that they not only serve to enhance the performance of the users, but they also play a role in increasing the confidence of users. In American institutions of higher learning, the use of these drugs was considered the norm, with many of those that promoted its use stating that it is an essential means of ensuring that their academic performance was advanced. Therefore, unlike in other countries that were studied, especially in the EU, the United States showed a higher number of people that approve of the use of performance enhancing drugs and consider it to be a social norm. The emergence of the use of these drugs from the periphery into the mainstream is a sign that the taboos that governed their use is gradually being eroded away, and society is gradually accepting these drugs as an essential aspect of their lives. Under such circumstance, it is likely to be difficult to ensure that the argument concerning the use of performance enhancing drugs leads to unfairness because it is the same environment that has fostered competitiveness that has also led to the advancement of means through which individuals are increasingly feeling under pressure to increase their performance.

A study on performance enhancement drugs shows that it is often determine by alcohol use. Alcohol use is an influential factor when it comes to the use of performance enhancement drugs, especially among young people. This is especially considering that these individuals are more impressionable at this stage in their lives and feel that they can be better able to overcome their deficiencies through the use of these drugs (Boardley, Grix & Dewar, 2014). In addition, alcohol use makes it easier for individuals to want to try out new substances, meaning that it is a critical factor when it comes to the advancement of performance enhancing drug use. In most cases studied, young people are more susceptible to the use of these drugs because of the new pressures that have developed in their lives. There is often a failure to consider that piling pressure on these individuals might have the negative effect of making them to seek alternatives to keep up with the prevailing circumstances. It therefore becomes essential for these individuals to seek out ways to ensure that they are able to cope with the various pressures in their lives through the use of performance enhancing drugs. The use of these drugs is not only prevalent in the academic arena, but also in the workplace, where individuals are often under constant pressure to perform to the satisfaction of their superiors. A consequence is that many of these individuals end up adopting the use of performance enhancing drugs in order to cope with the pressure and long hours that they have to undergo in their work environment. This situation is a cause for concern in most countries assessed because it shows that individuals are increasingly becoming reliant on performance enhancing drugs in order to undertake everyday activities as well as to cope with the pressures of the contemporary world.

Another aspect of performance enhancing drug use is that despite their being considered a social norm, not many people have actually made use of them. Therefore, the perceptions concerning their use is not consistent with reality because while a considerable number of people feel that it is justifiable to make use of these drugs, in reality, their use is       quite limited. Social media as well as other means of rapid circulation of information has made it possible for a positive attitude towards performance enhancing drug use to develop (Brennan, Kanayama & Pope, 2013). In addition, it has led to the creation of an environment where individuals have become more ready to make use of these drugs whenever they feel that they have to attain their goals as quickly as possible. These circumstances are a matter of serious concern because they show that individuals in the contemporary world, because of the prevailing misinformation concerning performance enhancing drugs, even though they may not be active users, have developed an attitude that fosters its use. Consequently, it is important that initiatives to bring about an end to such misinformation and to counter it is essential in making sure that society as a whole is protected against the use of drugs that might be harmful to the health of individuals without necessarily providing any tangible benefits. Creating awareness that the use of performance enhancing drugs should not be considered a social norm and should instead only be used on recommendation from competent medical practitioners is important in helping to promote the interests of all individuals in society. This is especially the case where most of these drugs are readily available over the counter; meaning that many individuals take them without necessarily having knowledge concerning their potential effect on them. By creating awareness concerning performance enhancing drugs, it becomes possible for individuals to question whether they should be making use of these drugs themselves.

Performance enhancing drugs in sports

In sport, the use of performance enhancing drugs is a serious problem, especially when it comes to competitive sports. This is because in the contemporary world, winning competitions comes with considerable benefits, including cash rewards and sponsorship deals. The result is that some sportsmen are often willing to do whatever it takes to ensure that they attain the edge that they need over their competition in order to win. The use of performance enhancing drugs, or doping, in sports has led to a situation where it has raised a lot of concern, especially within the public concerning whether it is ethical (Brand, Heck & Ziegler, 2014). Organizations have been set up to ensure that such practices are put to a stop, with many sportsmen and women that have been found to have made use of these drugs being handed severe punishments. Among the most severe punishments that have been meted out have been striping athletes of their medals and also banning them from competitions for certain periods of time. The stricter rules that have been put in place concerning the use of performance enhancing drugs has led to some individuals in sports going to extreme lengths to ensure that they hide the fact that they make use of these drugs (Hodge, Hargreaves, Gerrard & Lonsdale, 2013). However, despite the strict guidelines that have been set up concerning them, performance enhancing drugs seem to continue haunting sports. Scandals associated with the use of these drugs have become more common in recent years than was previously the case and this has been associated with more advanced methods of detecting the presence of these substances in the body. One of the most noteworthy scandals that have come about in recent years has been the Russian doping scandal, which has revealed that the Russian government has been behind the advancement of the performance of its athletes through the promotion of an extensive doping program (Duval, 2017). While the role of the Russian government has been revealed, it is likely that a number of other governments across the world run similar programs in order to enhance the performance of their athletes.

Despite the presence of better methods of detecting illegal substances in sports, there are instances where individuals might make use of these substances unknowingly. The ready availability of over the counter drugs that may contain banned substances in sport has the potential of leading to the unfair victimization of some athletes. The latter might innocently make use of drugs with performance enhancement qualities which, if detected, can lead to a situation where they are led into a situation where they are punished for offenses that they have not intentionally committed (Chan, Lentillon-Kaestner, Dimmock, et al., 2015). The development of awareness concerning the substances that are banned in sport is an important means of making sure that there is a reduction of incidents of the use of performance enhancing drugs. In addition, there are instances where it is essential for governments to place strict regulations on those substances that enhance the performance of individuals. The easy availability of these substances over the counter should be discontinued because it is a means through which to ensure that there is little chance of use of these drugs in sport without the approval of medical practitioners. The achievement of this goal would make sure that there is the advancement of means through which individuals in sport are not only protected against the use of these drugs, but also from unfair competition from those individuals that are likely to intentionally use performance enhancing drugs to gain an advantage. By restricting the availability of performance enhancing drugs, especially to individuals participating in physically demanding and competitive sports, it becomes possible to reduce instances of scandals in sports while at the same time increasing the profile of various sporting activities. The pressure that is encountered by athletes in competitive sports has the potential of leading them towards the seeking to make use of performance enhancing drugs. It is therefore essential to ensure that there is the promotion of awareness concerning the need for fairness in sports in order for the use of these drugs to be significantly reduced.

Prevalence of performance enhancing drug use

The prevalence of performance enhancing drug use is dependent on the prevailing factors in the environments within which individuals live. Studies on various countries, including universities in the UK, Belgium, and Turkey, show that a considerable number of individuals have not made use of these drugs, and those that have are more likely in high pressure environments. The latter is especially the case in universities where students in such faculties as medicine or related ones tend to report higher incidents of substance use in order to enhance their performance. Using these circumstances is believed by individuals to ensure that they are able to cope with courses that are particularly demanding (Helmer, Pischke, Van Hal, et al., 2016). Moreover, an increasing number of individuals in society feel the need to ensure that they succeed in their endeavors meaning that they are willing to do what they believe will help them achieve their goals. The use of performance enhancing drugs is believed to be a means of ensuring that they are able to cope with the stress that is prevalent when dealing with the stress of everyday life. There are also instances where individuals feel that those that are more successful, either in the workplace or in academics, make use of performance enhancing drugs. This belief is based on the highly competitive nature of life in the contemporary world and the different ways through which individuals have adopted to cope with the stress. A result is that individuals have come to suspect one another without any proof that their fellows actually use performance enhancing drugs.

Conclusion

 The findings of the studies reviewed above show that the use of performance enhancing drugs is an increasingly worrying issue. This is especially considering that there is a widespread belief that most individuals make use of these drugs on a daily basis. While this belief is not based on reality, it might have an influence on an increasing trend in the use of these substances in society. Pressures found in the lives of individuals in both academic and work environments, among others, has led to the belief that it is a social norm for performance enhancement drugs to be used in various circumstances. However, the use of these drugs is not as widespread as it seems, and in fact, very few individuals actually make use of them.