Social Inequality

The increasing level of social inequality in the contemporary world is a source of concern within society. This is as a result of the widening gap between the rich and the poor in society to such an extent that the latter have ended up in situations where they cannot hope to improve their lives for the better. Also, the rich, in the process of seeking to attain even more wealth, have ended up forcing making use of those resources that could have been utilized for the purpose of alleviating poverty among individuals in society. Despite the presence of a welfare system, it is not robust enough to cater for the needs of the poor while at the same time helping them rise above poverty. This paper seeks to analyze the nature and causes of poverty as well as the theoretical frameworks that deal with the issue of inequality.

One of the biggest causes of social inequality is that the economy is controlled by the rich, who make use of the available natural resources to become richer. The rich few people in the world have taken over the most crucial means of production; essentially forcing the rest of society to work for them or buy products from them. The result has been that a significant number of those individuals who do not have any means of making a decent living have ended up in a situation where they have been reduced to poverty. The latter tend to have very few opportunities to advance themselves in society, meaning that they have to ensure that they do the best that they can to make ends meet with minimal support (Parish, 1988). The rich, on the other hand, often seek to increase their wealth, but this process often comes at a price because it encourages unequal development in society. There is little that the poor can do to protect their own interests because the rich have both the means and the power to ensure that they are able to attain considerable control over most of the wealth and resources within their own societies. As a result of the power that they derive from their wealth, the rich have the ability to ensure that they not only achieve dominance over the rest of society, but also advance their own interests in a way that is often against the interests of the poor.

The rich often seek to protect their interests through influencing government towards establishing favorable policies to them. The result is that a significant number of rich people in society end up being given access to numerous resources while at the same time not paying their fair share of taxes. This is a situation of concern because government ends up not having enough money that can be used in the establishment of a welfare program that is not only efficient, but also caters for the needs of the poor in diverse circumstances. Furthermore, as a result of the actions of the rich, it becomes extremely difficult for the poor to have the much needed opportunities to bring about their advancement in society. These individuals do not often have the educational qualifications to attain sustainable jobs in the current highly competitive economy; meaning that they have few opportunities to improve their lives. The unequal relationship between the rich and the poor in society can be explained through the Marxist theory, which proposes that society is divided into two distinct groups; the bourgeoisie, who control the means of production, and the proletariat, who provide the labor that the former need to ensure that they exploit the resources under their control. Thus, due to their need to not only maintain their power, but also increase their wealth, the bourgeoisie end up seeking to control even more resources; essentially ensuring that the proletariat remains subservient to them while still providing the labor that they need.

The Marxist perspective, therefore, proposes that social inequality comes about as a result of class struggle, or social conflict. The continuous struggle within the bourgeoisie, as well as the bourgeoisie against the proletariat and vice versa is essential in understanding social conflict because it promotes the idea that the different classes in society are often in conflict with each other. A consequence of this conflict is that a considerable number of individuals in society have ended up sinking into poverty while a very few have not only become rich, but have increased their wealth many times over. The resulting social inequality has created a potential for significant class conflict in the years to come, especially considering an increasing number of individuals have become poorer because of the social policies that have been established to protect the interests of the rich. The potential for conflict has become so great that it is possible that there will be an attempt, as Marx predicted, by the underprivileged classes in society to overthrow the rich in order to establish a just society. In most communities within the United States, specifically in large cities such as New York, the differences between the lifestyles of the rich and the poor can be seen through the manner that communities are separated. The rich live in exclusive neighborhoods that are not only secure, but also have all the amenities that they need. The poor, on the other hand, live in an insecure environment that is dominated by crime, low level of essential services, and high incidences of lack of basic needs; a sure sign of the inequality that has become dominant in society.

Additionally, the rise in inequality has led to a reduction in instances of social and economic justice. Social and economic justice is a situation where all individuals in society, no matter their class or status, are able to achieve a relatively high standard of living. Also, it involves individuals being able to ensure that they promote their own interests through having equal opportunities both within a social and economic context. Therefore, in the interest of advancing social and economic justice, the application of the Marxist theory is essential in creating equal opportunities. This perspective is one that promotes social equality where resources are owned by the entire community rather than by individuals. However, only essential property should remain in private hands, which individuals in society to have an equal share in the resources available while at the same time ensuring that individuals have equal opportunities for self development. The availability of equal opportunities would, however, involve taking away the significant power that capitalists hold over society. The nationalization of natural resources is an essential step in making sure that the state remains in the service of all people, without discrimination, rather than supporting the interests of a few people who form the elite. Moreover, in a society where all the people enjoy the available natural resources, social and economic justice can be achieved in a way that prevents the rise of class conflict.

In conclusion, the increase in the level of inequality in the contemporary world can be attributed to the way that a small number of individuals have come to gain control over a majority of the resources in society. Through this control, it has become possible to ensure that they continue further enriching themselves at the expense of both consumers and their workers. Therefore, in order to ensure that there is an end to inequality and the implementation of social and economic justice, it is essential for a Marxist-leaning type of society to be established.

Reference

Parish, R. (1988). Messages from a Welfare Mom. Newsweek.

Syrians horrified by 'crime of no honour' killing By Lina Shaikhouni and Chris Bell

A video documenting the brutal murder of a young woman in Syria has been met with outrage and horror online - and shone a renewed spotlight on so-called "honour killings" in the country.

The young woman, identified by Syrian news outlets and social media users as "Rasha Bseis", was shot repeatedly with an automatic rifle in the rebel-held town of Jarablus, near the Turkish border, by a man reported to be her brother. Some said the young woman was under 18 years of age.

The BBC has not been able to independently verify these reports.

In the video, a young woman cowers against a wall as a man stands over her with a gun. He opens fire, kicking dust up from the floor and wall. A voice in the background yells "wash away your shame".

The video has been widely viewed and shared online. A report on the Lebanese Al-Modon news website said police were investigating and an arrest warrant had been issued for the man.

'Crime of no honour'

Activists responded with a campaign to denounce so-called "honour" violence.

A graphic of the murdered woman looking fearfully into the camera, featuring the caption "crime of no honour", has been circulating online since Monday, BBC Monitoring reported.

Kish Malek (Check Mate), a civil society organisation based in southern Turkey, was among activist groups to publish the image on Facebook.

"A young man from the city of Jarablus has killed his sister after direct instigation by his friend allegedly to 'wash her of shame'," the organisation posted.

"The instigator filmed the crime and published it on social media networks," it added.

Sharing the image, Syrian NGO Women Now for Development issued a statement demanding justice for Rasha Bseis.

"Rasha is not only the victim of the spread of weapons and lapses in security, she is the victim of a dangerous social concept, under the pretext of 'shame washing' as an accepted - and sometimes encouraged - punishment," they wrote.

A copy of their statement would be sent to the local council governing Jarablus and all other concerned legal bodies, the organisation noted.

Syrian writer and women's rights activist Rima Flihan told the BBC there are no accurate statistics for honour killings in Syria but that "Syria and the Middle East had ranked highly in previous global statistics".

"I have worked in successive campaigns since 2005 in Syria to counter what is described as honour crimes," she said.

"The crime is encouraged by a law that is lenient on the murderer and a society which partly reduces a family's honour to a woman's body."

In 2009, Syria scrapped a law limiting or waiving punishment for men convicted of killing female relatives they regarded as having illicit sex.

At the time, Human Rights Watch said the measure did not go far enough. The law introduced a minimum two-year sentence for perpetrators of so-called "honour killings".

Since 2011, the conflict in Syria has claimed more than 350,000 lives. Ms Flihan says the chaos in Syria as a result of the war has made the problem of so-called "honour killings" worse.

"The presence of extremist groups in some areas encourages such crimes, and so does the law in others," she said.

"In both cases, the woman is the victim."

However, she told the BBC that the reaction to such crimes shows some positive change.

"I have noticed through monitoring people's comments on these crimes that there is a wider section of society that are rejecting and condemning them," she said.

Anna Dovgalyuk: Why do people think her 'manspreading' video is a Kremlin hoax?

Millions of people around the world have watched a viral video that appears to show a woman taking direct action against "manspreading". So why do some think it is actually Kremlin-backed disinformation?

A woman creeps up to unsuspecting men on the St Petersburg Metro. The men are taking up lots of space, with their legs wide open. Before they can react, the woman dumps a bottle of diluted bleach onto their trousers. It's enough to make a stain, although not strong enough to cause serious injury.

The video was made by Anna Dovgalyuk, a Russian activist, student and social media star. And it racked up millions of views before being removed from YouTube.

The story was picked up by numerous news websites and caused a huge online uproar. Comments heaped praise, scorn, and more extreme threats of violence on Anna and others involved with the video.

But along with the video's viral spread came questions. Was it staged? And also was it - as some believe - a crafted piece of propaganda, sponsored and spread by the Russian government? And if it was, what was the aim?

Anna Dovgalyuk is relatively new to YouTube activism. The video was only her second post on the platform. Her first also had a feminist theme, and was also shot on the St Petersburg Metro. It was a protest against upskirting - taking photos up women's skirts - and showed a model (not Anna) lifting her dress to show passengers her underwear.

That video also got a lot of coverage, and prompted Anna to turn her attention to a project attacking "manspreading" - the phenomenon of men on public transport who sit with their legs wide open or otherwise inconvenience fellow passengers by taking up too much space.

"I thought that it was one of those problems which should be highlighted, that people should be made aware of," she told BBC Trending.

The video went up in late September, and was clocking up views at a rate of a million a day. But almost immediately, questions were raised about its authenticity.

An online news outlet in St Petersburg called Bumaga quoted a man who supposedly appeared in her video, admitting that he was paid to sit on the train and get squirted. Bumaga reproduced a post by the man on the Russian social network Vkontakte. (His account was deleted and the BBC could not immediately reach the man for comment).

Additionally, in the video, Anna states that it was created "in assistance with friends who share my position."

Speaking to the BBC, she denied that it was staged or that anyone was paid to get diluted bleach thrown on them.

"This is some completely random guy," she says, "I don't know what kind of actor he considers himself to be... but there is no evidence, it's just somebody's claim."

'Staged Kremlin propaganda'

The story took another turn when a European Union project to combat Russian misinformation, EUvsDisinfo, called the video "staged Russian propaganda".

According to this theory, the stunt was part of the Kremlin's surreptitious online interventions into various culture wars around the world, and designed to provide evidence that Western-style feminism has gone too far.

The EUvsDisinfo report gave the video another burst of publicity - and several of the same outlets which credulously reported on the video when it went viral ran reports with the European Union's take.

EUvsDisinfo cited two main pieces of evidence: the Bumaga report, and also the fact that the video was picked up and repackaged by a Kremlin-funded social media venture called In The NOW, which has more than three million likes on Facebook. In The NOW also has accounts on Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat and YouTube.

But In The NOW began as a TV programme on Russia Today - now known as RT.

RT and the news agency Sputnik, are directly funded by the Kremlin. Western governments as well as media critics have called them propaganda outlets.

And EUvsDisinfo sees the dark arts of the Kremlin at work in Anna's video and its treatment by In the NOW. "The video stages extreme feminist activism and manages to provoke extreme anti-feminist reactions," its post on the video concluded. EUvsDisinfo turned down a request for an interview about this story.

But is this a case of seeing Russian bogeymen where there are none? Wouldn't any social media company pick up on such clickable content?

In The NOW - which is based in Berlin - says that although it is financed by Russian government money, it has editorial independence.

"There's no top-down editorial memo that goes out, nothing like that," says J Ray Sparks, an American who is chief operating officer of Maffick, the German company that produces In The NOW. "It has never been some kind of propaganda outlet."

Although In The NOW doesn't deny that it receives money from the Russian government, this information isn't readily apparent on its Facebook page. When asked whether its mix of light-hearted stories and more serious news had ever included a video critical of Russian President Vladimir Putin, Sparks replied: "We haven't done anything recently."

In the NOW's video about Anna's manspreading stunt has racked up more than six million views.

Zimbabwe: its history and fight for independence

The land of Zimbabwe was settled by the British in 1890 and named Rhodesia after its founder, Cecil John Rhodes, who believed that the British had the right of imperial rule in Africa because they were the “first race in the world and therefore the more of the world they inhabited, the better it would be for the human race”. It is this ideology which served as the basis of the discriminatory colonial policies that were set up to serve the interests of the white minority which had settled most of the best land in the country, and excluded the African majority who had virtually no rights in their own land. These policies led to the demand for change by the Africans within the limitations of the colonial constitution and when this did not work, the African nationalists became more radical when they realised that violence and bloodshed were inevitable if there was to be any change in the country. It was the stress of this oppression that forced the people of Zimbabwe to take up arms as the only solution to their problems. The armed struggle was led by two political parties namely the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) which had splintered from ZAPU. These two nationalist organisations got a lot of support from external forces which contributed to the success of the liberation movement in Zimbabwe.

These external forces consisted mainly of neighbouring independent African states – known as the frontline states, other armed liberation movements in neighbouring countries, and the Communist bloc led by China and the Soviet Union. The Communist bloc through the Organisation of African Unity (O.A.U.) gave aid to the Zimbabwean liberation movements in the form of arms and money. Some also provided training for the liberation combatants within their territories such as the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, Algeria, and Tanzania. These countries further provided instructors who trained the recruits in the camps who had come from Zimbabwe to join the struggle for majority rule. Furthermore, organisations such as the United Nations, the World Council of Churches and certain left-wing organisations in the west and in Scandinavia gave moral and financial support.

The Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) was the armed wing of ZAPU which was formed in the 1960s and had camps in Angola and in Lusaka, Zambia which were provided by the Zambian government to help in the liberation of their fellow Africans in Zimbabwe. ZIPRA’s crossing points to and from Zimbabwe were at Feira in Zambia opposite Mashonaland East. It was more influenced by the Soviet Union than by China as it adhered to Marxist-Leninist principles of mobilising the urban workers rather than the Maoist principles of mobilising the rural peasantry pursued by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, the military wing of ZANU. ZIPRA was also in a formal alliance with Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the military wing of the African National Congress in South Africa. In the mid-1960s, these two allied organisations mounted a celebrated mission into Southern Rhodesia, although this mission was not militarily successful. This mission, known as the Wankie fiasco, saw several hundred ZIPRA and MK freedom fighters enter Rhodesia through the uninhabited areas of Wankie and these were either killed or captured by a joint Rhodesian-South African force. Other countries, such as North Korea, had its military officials train the Zimbabwean freedom fighters how to use explosives and arms at a camp near Pyongyang.

ZANLA, on the other hand, was formed in 1965 in Tanzania and was heavily influenced by the Maoist guerrilla tactics that had been used very successfully by FRELIMO in Mozambique, that is, by infiltrating combatants into Zimbabwe, politicising the peasantry, and participating in ‘hit-and-run’ ambush operations. Even before Mozambique’s independence from Portugal, FRELIMO had supported ZANLA by allowing it to use the territory it controlled in Tete district along the Rhodesian border as a base of operations against the Rhodesian government. Because of its close ties with Mozambique’s FRELIMO, ZANLA gained a lot of support after Mozambique’s independence when its government permitted ZANLA to open training and supply camps along the Mozambican-Zimbabwean border which greatly assisted in the recruitment and training of troops.

The OAU member states’ meetings and resolutions concerning the white minority regime in Rhodesia induced Britain to push the United Nations to invoke mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia in 1968. However, these sanctions had many failings which included: the long period of time which had elapsed since Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1961 which had enabled the white regime to make adjustments and arrangements for the evasion of sanctions; the refusal of South Africa and Portugal to apply sanctions by continuing normal trade with Rhodesia and acting as go-betweens to market its goods and import on its behalf; and the general lack of political will on the part of most members of the United Nations to make sanctions work effectively. These sanctions against Rhodesia, although they did not work, helped to give a moral boost to the liberation movements in Zimbabwe, because despite the internal divisions within it, the OAU supported their fellow Africans in their struggle for freedom. Through its Liberation Committee, the OAU co-ordinated the material and financial support sent to the liberation movements in Zimbabwe from independent African states and from abroad. It also sought to reconcile the differences between ZANU and ZAPU, the main revolutionary groups in Zimbabwe so as to unify their forces against the common enemy. Both ZANU and ZAPU had gotten embroiled in the struggle within the Communist bloc between China and the Soviet Union about the latter’s leadership of the bloc. Each of these nationalist movements had adopted the communist doctrines of its main sponsor, such that ZAPU had adopted those of the Soviet Union while ZANU had adopted those of China. This resulted in the difficulty that kept these movements apart as well as various battles between their military wings.

The coup against the Salazar regime in Portugal in 1974 and its subsequent decolonisation policy helped the liberation movement in Zimbabwe a great deal because the white minority government lost one of its most important outlets for its exports namely, the ports of Mozambique. This coup also shocked the white regime and its main ally, South Africa, into the realisation that the African liberation movements could, through long and sustained armed struggle, force a colonial power to decolonise. This led the government of South Africa to adopt a more conciliatory approach to its relations with the newly independent black African states as well as its commitment to a political solution to the crisis in Rhodesia. South Africa was in a key position to influence Rhodesia because its roads and railways were the lifeline of the Rhodesian economy and as such was the only government in the region that was capable of putting pressure on it. The moderation of the policies of its chief ally towards its enemies led the embattled Rhodesian government to start negotiations with the African nationalists in Zimbabwe and finally to the beginning of majority rule in the country.

Cuba: What everyone needs to know

The Cuban starter pack

It has, over the years, become necessary to paint a vivid picture of Cuba from the time when it was still a Spanish colony through to the twenty first century and the struggles which this country and people have had to undergo in order to reach where they are today. It is necessary to use the format of asking questions and coming up with suitable answers to these questions so that a clearer picture of the true history of Cuba, without the bias which it has had to endure from some American writers. The discussion of the early liberation struggles of the people of this country against colonialism, first against Spain, and later against the United States, after the latter was awarded Cuba after winning its war against Spain is also necessary. Cuba had to suffer from decades during which the country was ruled by American backed dictators who suppressed the country’s interests in favor of their sponsors, mainly the United States and companies from this country. It is essential that a clear picture of how Cuba had to suffer land alienation as almost two thirds of the country’s land was either in the hands of private owners from the United States or in that of American corporations.

The events leading to the revolution and the American response to it that led this country to move into the Soviet sphere of influence are a direct result of American policy. The reasons for the success of the revolution despite the fact that it was often challenged by its more powerful neighbor to the north is that the revolution has proven its resilience. In addition, it is pertinent that a criticism of the American policies on Cuba after the revolution and suggestions of what the former could have done differently to ensure that it remained influential within Cuba. The six decades of the revolution should also discussed and this is coupled with a discussion of the circumstances that have ensured its survival to the present and the reasons why it did not collapse as soon as the Soviet Union, which was its main backer, did. One of the most fascinating factors concerning the Cuban revolution is the smooth transition of power from Fidel Castro to his brother Raul, and how the latter has presided over the liberalization of the economy so that the country can not only remain competitive on the world scene, but also for the benefit of the Cuban people.

Cuba: the land of contrast

The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the the people of Cuba since not only their standards of living but also their society changed for the better after the revolution. The revolution has ensured that the Cuban people are aware of each other’s equality and because of this, then they have to treat each other well, like a part of a greater family. This positive attitude towards each other it has enabled all workers within the Cuban economy to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled among the Cubans is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing because it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure. It is through the revolution that the Cubans became, for the first time, a united nation which was not divided by class or by interference from foreign countries such as the United States. It is only after the revolution that the Cubans came to identify their country as their own and this has created a strong nationalist feeling among them that is hard to match anywhere else in the world. The fact that the revolution has managed to survive for this long can be attributed in part to the strong sense of ownership that the Cubans have towards the revolution.

One of the legacies of the revolution is that of the achievement of literacy for all Cubans and because of this, Cuba is currently the only country in the world which has achieved a hundred percent literacy for all its citizens and all Cubans of any age have at least a basic education, a feat which even the United States, a long term rival of the revolution, has yet to achieve. The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women throughout the economy and this has been because of the belief that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is hardly any task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and in addition to the total literacy rate, the Cuban revolution has not only achieved universal healthcare for all its people, but it has also been able to develop one of the best medical healthcare systems in the world, another feat that it has accomplished without the advantages other countries have and despite the American attempts to stifle the revolution through the imposition of the trade embargo. The resilience of the Cuban revolution has also been able to raise the image of its leader, Fidel Castro, who is looked upon as a larger than life personality and who has been a thorn in the side of the United States for over five decades.

The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba and it has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. According to the book, the United States is the biggest threat to the achievements of life which the new order after the revolution has brought for the Cuban people. There has always been a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have, an action which would more likely than not destroy the achievements that have been made by Cuba so far. The obsession with Cuba which has been displayed by successive American administrations shows just how potent the revolution has become and this has been the main reason for the imposition of the trade embargo over this country. The irrational fear of the Cuban revolution by the United States government and the policies which have been adopted against it have ensured that this island nation has not had the opportunity to develop its potential to the fullest. However, despite the hostility from the United States, the Cuban revolution was able to have a lot of influence on the world scene as seen in its involvement in the protection of the government of the newly independent African country of Angola from Apartheid sponsored rebels.

Cuba was able to send more than thirty thousand troops to aid the ailing African nationalist government and it is partially because of this action that part of the military power of the oppressive Apartheid South African regime was destroyed. Furthermore, the Cuban revolution attempted to aid other countries such as Congo and Bolivia in their bid to have their own revolutions, although the latter was not successful. The book comes to the conclusion that the United States has for a long time been unfair towards the revolution through its policies and expresses the desire for better relations with Cuba especially during the Obama administration.

The Cuban Revolution and Gender

A happy Cuban woman

         The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the new man and woman in the workplace. This has allowed people to become aware that they need to treat each other well. Moreover, it has enabled all workers to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled in the workplace is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing; it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure.

       The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women in the place of work. This is because it has ensured that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is no task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and all this is due to the revolution.

The real Cuba

           The most desirable society that can be created in Cuba is one where all people within it are equal, with nobody being either above or beneath the other. Moreover, there should be gender balance in government so that it is no longer just dominated by men. In addition, a society which is just should be created, where everybody is allowed to do what they want so long as what they do does not destroy the aims of the revolution. However, the creation of such a society cannot be achieved unless several threats are dealt with swiftly. One of these is the beginning of a highly paternalistic culture in the society, where one cannot go ahead in life unless he or she is sponsored by somebody powerful in society. The second threat is the temptation to slowly introduce capitalistic features into the country in order to conform to the world economy. This is extremely dangerous because so far, the revolution has been a success and it can, therefore, not be merged with corrupting elements.

More of the real Cuba

           The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba. It has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. This state is, therefore, also the biggest threat to the achievement of life which the new order would bring to the people of Cuba. There is a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have. This, of course, is American propaganda, because there is a larger percentage of people with low standards of living in that country than in Cuba. It is exceedingly urgent for the government and people of Cuba to be wary of such temptations because to submit to them would make all the sacrifices made for the revolution to be useless.

Governance Networks

Within the last decades of the twentieth century, the concept of governance developed within political studies and the fields related to it. This concept is one that seeks to promote the idea that there is a wide variety of approaches that are required to make sure that there is an understanding of the world and the changing nature of the role of the state within the international system. Furthermore, there is the rise of the belief that governance can be used to promote the idea that the contemporary world is where individuals live in a world where there are a diversity of coexisting networks that are aimed at safeguarding the lives of individuals as well as society in general (Bush, Oosterveer, Bailey, & Mol, 2015). These networks have developed in such a way that ensures that there is the creation of a better understanding of the massive urbanization, globalization, and a diversity of other societal demands that have come about because of the considerable participation of the civil society in everyday life (Fung, 2015). This new knowledge is essential in bringing about an understanding of the way that the world is developing because it allows for the inclusion of the manner that new concepts such as the participation of the civic society has been able to establish a strong public voice in decision making. In this paper, there will be a discussion and analysis of the concept of the governance network and the manner through which it has been able to affect the world.

One of the most significant aspects of the governance network is that it has led to the argument that societies are increasingly becoming fragmented. This is mainly because of the belief that the new demands that are being made on governments has led them towards a shift from the more traditional bureaucratic order to one that is more responsive to the demands of society (Wiesel & Modell, 2014). Such interactive governments have the potential of leading towards the fragmentation of society because it involves a process where there is greater devolution of power in such a way that promotes the achievement of more efficiency when it comes to service delivery. Governance networks have also become critical when it comes to policymaking because the individuals involved in the latter tend to consult with the diverse stakeholders in society before any decisions are made (Bovaird, Stoker, Jones, Loeffler, & Pinilla Roncancio, 2016). The arbitrary decision making processes that was an essential aspect of the bureaucratic forms of government are increasingly being abandoned in favour of more open ones where there is need to seek to achieve the approval of stakeholders before policies are implemented (Denis, Ferlie, & Van Gestel, 2015; Greve, 2015). Furthermore, there has also been an increasing role of the private sector in those aspects of government that were previously the strict domain of the public sector (O'Toole, 2015). Thus, governance networks have become essential means through which to bring about a form of governmental devolution that seeks to enhance service delivery in the most efficient way possible while at the same time reducing the role of government in the process. It has also ensured that the role of government in society has essentially become blurred because the institutions involved in service delivery have their roles increasingly being taken by more specialized entities from the private sector.

The latter collaborative arrangements have made it possible for governments to undertake their tasks in a manner that is more supervisory than active. Governance networks have ensured that there is an increase in the proliferation of governance arrangements either with the private sector or other governments with the aim of bringing about a more efficient achievement of goals (Page, Stone, Bryson, & Crosby, 2015). This is especially the case considering that there are some governance networks which have developed between a local government, other governments, as well as the private sector with the aim of seeking to achieve the best possible results when it comes to undertaking their functions. These new collaborations have essentially made it possible for governance networks to become more common in the contemporary world to such an extent that they have become the norm. It is currently normal for individuals to expect that network arrangements will bring them the services that they need without a complete reliance on their governments to provide the services (Vangen, Hayes, & Cornforth, 2015). Governments have ended up becoming facilitators and guarantors rather than the actual providers of services; meaning that there has developed a necessity that there is the establishment of newer networks to increase efficiency. It has also become possible for a new layer of governance to appear within local governments, with these layers playing a significant role when it comes to the development of strong initiatives aimed at enhancing efficiency while at the same time reducing the role of government (Kapucu, Hu, & Khosa, 2017). The various stakeholders in society have also come to have a say in the management of their own governments and how services are delivered. However, despite this being the case, it is essential to approach governance networks with caution because despite their being widespread, they have not been as widely adopted as expected.

Governance networks have brought about a greater understanding of the role that networks can play in enhancing the role of governments. This is because it involves an understanding of the manner through which the complexity of the multi-governmental landscape has become a necessity in the contemporary world (De Vries, Bekkers, & Tummers, 2016). It is necessary to consider that governance networks have essentially made it possible for there to be the creation of means through which to bring about the interaction between a diversity of actors in society in such a way that promotes the interests of all involved because there is devolution of functions (Borg, Toikka, & Primmer, 2015). Furthermore, it has become possible for these actors to come to terms with each other’s capabilities in such a way that helps to bring about the achievement of means through which to promote the diversification of functions towards the achievement of common goals. Thus, it can be argued that politicians and administrators have become the main actors when it comes to the promotion of societal interests and this has been in such a way that they have come to be seen as the guarantors of public services (Bryson, Crosby, & Bloomberg, 2014; Head & Alford, 2015). However, despite the achievement of this objective, it has become essential to consider that these individuals have gained considerable power over a diversity of functions. This is especially the case considering that these individuals might end up abusing their power to ensure that they serve the interests of their respective organizations or lobbies that sponsored them towards attaining their positions (Howlett & Ramesh, 2016). Therefore, there should be a process where there is the development of awareness concerning the relationships between the actors in various governance networks so that it can be possible to bring about the achievement of greater transparency in the processes that are undertaken.

The term governance network implies that there is a convergence when it comes to a diversity of issues concerning government and the manner through which it is operated. It is necessary to consider that this convergence is one that has taken place in order to meet the needs of society while at the same time promoting a situation where there is the achievement of common goals in as efficient a manner as possible (Lecy, Mergel, & Schmitz, 2014). While there has been considerable debate concerning what exactly governance networks mean, it is pertinent to consider that it is a reality in the contemporary world and has to be understood as such. A body of knowledge and concepts concerning governance networks has grown over the years and this has led to the establishment of means through which an understanding of the term can be understood. One of the most important factors concerning governance networks is that is involves a situation where service delivery and policy are developed and implemented through networks that involve actors that are essentially interdependent. The interdependency between the various actors can be considered to be an essential aspect of promoting the development of the networks that are involved in service delivery (Bryson, Crosby, & Stone, 2015). It is also necessary to stress that it is the actors who make choices concerning the strategies that they have to use in order to find and make solutions to various problems. There are also instances where there is a complexity of interactions and negotiating partners that come about because of the interdependencies that occur between actors (Skelcher & Smith, 2015). Therefore, the different governance networks tend to be quite diverse in their make up because each of them is developed to satisfy a large number of unique needs (Van den Hurk & Verhoest, 2015). The variety of perceptions and strategies that they have to implement requires that there is the achievement of unique problem solving, service delivery and policy implementation initiatives at all times to ensure efficiency.

In conclusion, the governance network approach is one that stresses the need to consider the outcomes of the implementation of different policies and service delivery. A consideration of the outcomes ensures that there are initiatives aimed at promoting the development of the most pertinent policies possible while at the same time including the most qualified actors to undertake the diverse tasks involved in bringing about the achievement of results. The development of an understanding of needs is critical for the creation of institutionalization of the relationships that come about between the different actors. These create patterns that are necessary for the promotion of effective working relationships between actors that make it possible to bring about strong service delivery initiatives. The relationships involved are those that ensure that there is the establishment of social networks that are necessary for not only bringing about better service delivery, but also ensures that there is the establishment of a basis upon which the various actors can work together in other networks. Finally, the relationships between the various actors ensures that there is the emergence of rules that promote the regulation of the behaviour within networks; making it possible for actors to explore new content that might enhance their efficiency while at the same time helping in enhancing the quality of services being delivered.

References

Borg, R., Toikka, A., & Primmer, E. (2015). Social capital and governance: a social network analysis of forest biodiversity collaboration in Central Finland. Forest Policy and Economics, 50, 90-97.

Bovaird, T., Stoker, G., Jones, T., Loeffler, E., & Pinilla Roncancio, M. (2016). Activating collective co-production of public services: influencing citizens to participate in complex governance mechanisms in the UK. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 82(1), 47-68.

Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C., & Bloomberg, L. (2014). Public value governance: Moving beyond traditional public administration and the new public management. Public administration review, 74(4), 445-456.

Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C., & Stone, M. M. (2015). Designing and implementing cross‐sector collaborations: Needed and challenging. Public administration review, 75(5), 647-663.

Bush, S. R., Oosterveer, P., Bailey, M., & Mol, A. P. (2015). Sustainability governance of chains and networks: a review and future outlook. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107, 8-19.

De Vries, H., Bekkers, V., & Tummers, L. (2016). Innovation in the public sector: A systematic review and future research agenda. Public Administration, 94(1), 146-166.

Denis, J. L., Ferlie, E., & Van Gestel, N. (2015). Understanding hybridity in public organizations. Public Administration, 93(2), 273-289.

Fung, A. (2015). Putting the public back into governance: The challenges of citizen participation and its future. Public administration review, 75(4), 513-522.

Greve, C. (2015). Ideas in public management reform for the 2010s. Digitalization, value creation and involvement. Public Organization Review, 15(1), 49-65.

Head, B. W., & Alford, J. (2015). Wicked problems: Implications for public policy and management. Administration & Society, 47(6), 711-739.

Howlett, M., & Ramesh, M. (2016). Achilles' heels of governance: Critical capacity deficits and their role in governance failures. Regulation & Governance, 10(4), 301-313.

Kapucu, N., Hu, Q., & Khosa, S. (2017). The state of network research in public administration. Administration & Society, 49(8), 1087-1120.

Lecy, J. D., Mergel, I. A., & Schmitz, H. P. (2014). Networks in public administration: current scholarship in review. Public Management Review, 16(5), 643-665.

O'Toole, L. J. (2015). Networks and networking: The public administrative agendas. Public administration review, 75(3), 361-371.

Page, S. B., Stone, M. M., Bryson, J. M., & Crosby, B. C. (2015). Public Value Creation by Cross‐Sector Collaborations: A Framework and Challenges of Assessment. Public Administration, 93(3), 715-732.

Skelcher, C., & Smith, S. R. (2015). Theorizing hybridity: Institutional logics, complex organizations, and actor identities: The case of nonprofits. Public Administration, 93(2), 433-448.

Van den Hurk, M., & Verhoest, K. (2015). The governance of public–private partnerships in sports infrastructure: Interfering complexities in Belgium. International Journal of Project Management, 33(1), 201-211.

Vangen, S., Hayes, J. P., & Cornforth, C. (2015). Governing cross-sector, inter-organizational collaborations. Public Management Review, 17(9), 1237-1260.

Wiesel, F., & Modell, S. (2014). From new public management to new public governance? Hybridization and implications for public sector consumerism. Financial Accountability & Management, 30(2), 175-205.

Gasland (2010)

One of the most espoused ideals of this century has been environmentalism, which can be defined is a philosophy that is based on the concept of conserving the natural environment through addressing issues that concern various human activities. It is a fact that most of the activities which are addressed by environmentalism involve the pollution of the environment through industrial activities such as the extraction of natural gas by oil and gas companies. The documentary Gasland is an attempt to create awareness, within the American public, of the effects of that attempts made by gas companies to extract natural gas in rural America have on the environment. This film has created a new awareness in the public concerning the devastating environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing, which is one of the means through which natural gas is extracted in the mainland United States. This means of gas extraction, also known as fracking, is done through the injection of chemicals and massive quantities of water at high pressures with the intention of cracking open the rocks deep beneath the surface and as a result releasing the natural gas. This method has helped in the emergence of the natural gas boom across the United States, but as the film shows, there has developed proof that this method of gas extraction is leading to the contamination of water as well as leaking into homes. The film works towards the establishment of means through which these issues concerning the conservation of the American environment can be discussed and viable solutions for the environmental problems caused by these activities by oil and gas companies can be found. It can further be said that this film deals with the preservation, the development, and the return of the American natural environment to the state in which it was previously.

The film’s director, states that his father received a proposal from a gas company for the latter to be allowed to drill for natural gas in his property using the fracking method. At this time, this was a new method which can be considered to be extreme for the purpose of extracting natural gas through the pumping of water and toxic chemicals into the ground at extremely high pressures to fracture the rock formations that contain the natural gas. In the film, it is stated that previously, the main method that was used for the extraction of natural gas was through the drilling into the ground until a pocket of gas was hit and this gas was captured as it rose. The director states that one of the reasons why he started making the film is because he started to wonder how it was that all of a sudden his family and their neighbours were in a gas drilling area when prior to this, their area had never had any kind of industrial development. In the film, the fact that the fracking method is causing environmental damage is worrisome and disturbing and it is because of the use of these methods by the various gas companies that the beautiful, scenic and amazing landscape of the United States is being destroyed. The director of the film, who also serves as the narrator, states that at least fifty percent the state of New York as well as sixty percent the state of Pennsylvania is being leased to gas companies for the purpose of drilling for gas using the fracking method. Throughout the film, it is seen that the land in the United States is being handed over to gas prospecting companies at an alarming rate with many of the individuals doing so, mostly farmers, not realising that doing so is resulting in the destruction of their natural environment.

One would say that the film is mostly made up of a series of interviews and it can be considered to be one which shows profound respect for the people from different places across the United States that are interviewed. It can further be said that because of the respect that is displayed by the film’s director that the individuals who are interviewed are so forthcoming with the information that they have to give concerning the effects of fracking on their environment as well as its direct effects on their lives. The film is able to show how the use of the fracking method has come to put those areas in which it is used in an environmental crisis and the people who are affected the most by this environmental degradation seem to be more than willing to talk to the film’s director about their problems. The means through which the director seems to conduct his interviews seem to be down to earth and this not only engages the individuals being interviewed but also the audience of the film as they become more interested and engaged in the arguments being made. One of the factors which make the film more interesting to the viewer and is able to pass its message across is that the director is able to incorporate what the individuals who are being interviewed are saying and doing into the main story of the film and this enables the director to pass his message across from the direct perspective of those individuals affected. It seems that the main aim of the film’s director is to ensure that he attempts to find the most profound factors about fracking that have come to affect the interviewees and because of this, his attempts are rewarded by a straightforward response to his enquiries.

Music plays an important role in the film because it comes to affect the way in which the message of the film is being relayed. Music is what makes the message of the film gain some sort of character because it enables the viewer to recognise the gravity of the message as it is being passed across. It is what gives the interviews in the film the desired effect when the director attempts to make a point concerning the fracking method of gas extraction. Music is also used by the film’s director to display the irony behind the various statements made by some of the leaders in the gas industry as well as some of the politicians who are in full support of the use of the faracking method in the mainland United States. The power of music in this film is so profound that its audience cannot help it but be engrossed in the subject matter of the film without any more prompting. It can be said that music is the soul of this film and it is meant to get in touch with the emotions of its audience as it is used to display the various areas where the director is heading. For example, one hears music from Preston Reed as the director heads into Colorado and this provides the setting for the material which he would like for his audience to hear and absorb.

When one watches this film, he will come to the conclusion that while many environmentalist groups profess to fight for the conservation of the American environment since many of them tend to defeat their own purpose for doing so. One of the reasons why the environmentalist groups have been defeated in their purpose is because they do not have enough awareness concerning how the use of the fracking method of natural gas extraction is slowly but surely destroying the environment of the United States. This is the reason why Gasland is extremely important since it helps to raise awareness concerning the destruction of the environment by gas companies starting from his home state of Pennsylvania to the rest of the United States where gas companies are either involved or propose to get involved in the extraction of natural gas using the fracking method. While it is a fact that most of the gas companies have come out to vehemently oppose the film, making use of all the public relations strategies available to them to discredit its validity, it is the duty of all the environmentalist groups in the country as well as all the people concerned to oppose the use of fracking method by the gas companies as well as ensure that the government is pressured into passing laws which regulate these companies.

In conclusion, it can be said that the idea that gas companies retain control of their own matters concerning drilling especially when these methods endanger the environment has come to be challenged in the film since at present, actors other than governments have come to be key players in the environmental issue. There has been a shift from having regional meetings to implementation of initiatives that are localized and formation of partnerships in order to be able to combat the causes of environmental problems that affect various countries. The time has come when the government should shift their strategies to involve those tactics which are able to enhance the prospects that will implement effective management of the environment starting from the local level of the society.

Eddie Mabo

Eddie Mabo was an Australian man who played a crucial role in the recognition of the right of the indigenous people to own the land in the country. He was born in the Torres Strait Islands in 1936 and it was one of his fundamental beliefs that the land upon which he was born belonged to him and his people. An indigenous Australian, he displayed an astute knowledge of the fact that the land upon which he was born was rightfully indigenous, and that the laws that had been instituted by the colonial settlers and their government did the indigenous people a great injustice. For almost a decade, this man fought for the rights of his people by taking a case to court with the intention of having it overturn the terra nullius land system in Australia which alienated the indigenous people from their land. The sheer determination of this man, against all odds, ensured that he had one of the greatest wins in Australian history for an indigenous person, because the ruling made, overturning the terra nullius system, ensured that over three hundred years of injustice had almost come to an end. The overturning of this system further granted the indigenous people the confidence of identifying themselves with the land of their ancestors and ensured that their right to it was recognized beyond doubt. Eddie Mabo was a man who rose from humble origins as a gardener to becoming one of the national icons of Australia because of the fact that he was deeply involved in fighting for the rights of his people.

While he was born in the Torres Strait Islands, Mabo spent most of his life in Queensland, and was in fact not a well known figure in his home island until after he took his case on indigenous land rights to court. It was only after his death from cancer as well as the court victory over the land issue five months later that his fellow indigenous people on the island welcomed his as one of their own. His victory did not only affect the people of his home island but also all the indigenous people of Australia and this is the reason why Mabo has become one of the most respected men among them. The idea that an indigenous person could almost singlehandedly challenge the Australian status quo and gain a great victory from it was one of those instances which were unheard of in the history of this country. The indigenous people had long been suppressed by the colonial government, and later by the white settlers who dominated and continue to dominate almost every aspect of life in Australia. Mabo’s posthumous court victory ensured that the indigenous people were recognized as a legitimate part of the Australian population with the same rights as those who dominated the society. Furthermore, it may have played a role in the recognition of indigenous people as reasoning human beings who had, throughout the history of the colonization of Australia had been treated unfairly; the court case was therefore the first step in correcting the injustice done to them.

The overturning of the terra nullius policy can be said to be, in reality, a policy of inclusion whose purpose is to ensure that all the Australian people have an equal chance to compete in making their dreams and aspirations come true. Previously, indigenous groups were completely excluded from the majority of economic activities in Australia except for those which were considered to be labor intensive. Moreover these groups were rarely ever accepted in the mainstream Australian life, therefore, Mabo’s court victory can be said to have been a step towards the inclusion of the indigenous people into the center of Australian society. From the very beginning of the Mabo’s case in court, there has been opposition towards it with those against it stating that it is giving an unfair advantage to minority groups over other people in Australia. Those who are opposed to the overturning of the terra nullius system further state that this action went against the proper way of Australian life because of the belief that did not treat all people equally, and instead it gives unfair privileges to those people who would otherwise not have deserved them. These arguments are not very logical considering the injustices which were committed against the indigenous Australian groups in the past. The white population in Australia has been, for a long time, dominant, and Mabo’s court victory was a direct challenge to this status. This may help to explain why Mabo’s grave was vandalized and racist terms painted all over it. This vandalism forced the exhumation of his body and its reburial in his ancestral home in the Torres Strait; a place for whose people he had fought for and won the right to own the land upon which they had lived from time immemorial.

Mabo’s court victory has over the last two decades come to have a significant impact on the people of the islands where he was born. Among the most significant aspects of this has been the recognition that the indigenous people were greatly marginalized in matters concerning health when compared to the mainstream Australian population. This has led to the improvement of the healthcare facilities which are available for them, ensuring a higher life expectancy than in previous years. The declining child death rates has led to a decline in the birth rates, because parents are now more secure because they know that there are enough resources available today to ensure that their children survive. Another reason for this is the fact that the economic conditions prevalent in the indigenous Australian society today do not allow parents to have more than a few children at a time because they cannot afford to have more even if they wanted to. This results in not only fewer children, but it also means that there are fewer ties to the extended family and this in turn means that in subsequent generations, there will be fewer uncles, aunts and cousins, on whom to rely, than in previous generations.

The life expectation of native Australians between the years 1991 and 1996 was projected to be fifty six and sixty one years for men and women in that order. This was found to be considerably lower than that of the mainstream population which was estimated to be between 75 and 91 years for men and women respectively. Furthermore, it was found that the death rate among many indigenous people was at a much higher rate than those of the mainstream Australian population. In fact, the death rate was so high that that they exceeded the general Australian population in every age group that was analyzed. Most of the people from indigenous populations died before reaching the age of fifty, and this was attributed to the lack of the proper healthcare facilities that other Australians have access to. The indigenous population has been completely marginalized in all matters concerning health and this has contributed a great deal in the high mortality rates among them, just when they are at their prime. It has been found that one of the leading causes of death among this population are cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, and these made up 75% of all the deaths that were reported within this population. The rates of hospitalization was much higher among the indigenous people than that of the general Australian public, with these being much higher in all the age groups that were assessed.

While Mabo’s court victory may have been the first step towards the improvement of the lives of the indigenous people, there is still a lot to be done to achieve this objective. Racism is still as prevalent as it was before the ruling, as seen when Mabo’s grave was vandalized just one day after his funeral with racist terms being painted all over his headstone. In addition, the health status of indigenous people, for whom Mabo fought, while it has improved somewhat, still has a long way to go before it can reach the status that the other Australians enjoy. Life expectancy is still low, with many indigenous people not living to be more than fifty years old, an occurrence which is a great tragedy in a country which prides itself in being one of the most developed in the world. The fact that an indigenous person had to go to court in order to get basic land rights for its people shows just how ironic Australian democracy is because it favors those people of Caucasian descent more than the natives of the land. This has created a situation where the latter are dominated completely and they have little say in their own destiny. It is to either bow to the status quo or risk the continued marginalization of their society. This is something which should not be accepted, not only by the indigenous people themselves, but also by the government because the latter should be at the forefront of protecting the rights of the indigenous people. The indigenous people should also fight for their own rights because not to do so would mean that their situation will not be recognized, hence a solution will not be attained. It such a thing was to happen, then the legacy of such indigenous men as Eddie Mabo would be forever tarnished.