Introduction
Africa
is a continent that has been plagued by significant conflicts, and this is
especially the case in the central parts, where there seems to have been
endless conflict since gaining independence from various colonial powers. Most
central African countries have encountered conflicts, in one form or the other,
based on religion, politics, or ethnicity, which have devastated the region to
such an extent that some states have either failed, or are in the process of
recovering after very long internal conflicts. However, internal conflicts have
not abated on the continent and there have been incidents where civil wars have
ended up getting out of hand to such an extent that it has essentially led to
humanitarian crises. A result has been that despite the considerable efforts
made by the international community, conflicts have not been able to be brought
to an end because major political actors have ended up not being able to ensure
that they gain control of the situation and come to solutions to the conflicts in
their home countries. The conflicts that have taken place in some African
countries such as the Central African Republic and South Sudan has led to
considerable internal displacement and famine which have plagued the majority
of their populations. In addition, the atrocities committed by rival armed
groups in such countries have had a negative effect on the lives of their
people because it is civilians who have borne the brunt of the conflict. Such
circumstances have become common in conflict areas to such an extent that it
has become essential to make a study of the situation to find out their roots
and determine solutions. This is especially the case considering that the
humanitarian crisis in some of these countries have also come to affect their
neighbors.
The
main focus of this paper is the crisis in the Central African Republic
(CAR) and its development in the future. It is a relevant study because it will
involve an analysis of a diversity of events that have taken place in the
country that not only triggered the conflict, but also led to a situation where
there was considerable exacerbation of the conflict to such an extent that it
has gotten out of control. There will also be an attempt to ensure that there
is the development of an understanding of the CAR conflict in such a way that
promotes the advancement of knowledge concerning its potential course and the
manner through which it is likely to be resolved. This study is important
because it tackles one of the most ignored conflicts on the African continent,
especially by the international community, which has instead focused more on
such countries as Syria and Yemen, which despite their own conflicts, have not
been able to get to the same point as that taking place in the CAR. The study
will seek to point out the deficiencies in the manner through which the crisis
has been handled and the lack of any tangible efforts by the most powerful countries
in the world to ensure that it is brought to a swift end either through
sponsoring negotiations by all sides of the conflict or even undertaking
military action to ensure that they are forced onto the negotiating table. This
study is also important for the broader community because it allows for an
analysis of the genesis of conflicts and the manner through which they might
end up getting out of control if they are not handled properly and brought to
an end as swiftly as possible. It will enable the target audience to have an
understanding of the causes of conflict and apply the lessons learned from the
one taking place in the CAR as reference of how to make sure that such
conflicts do not come up again in the contemporary world.
The
specific scope of the study will be to conduct research on the CAR conflict
from its beginnings in order to be able to determine its future course as well
as come up with recommendations for its end. This is an important study because
it will ensure that there is the advancement of knowledge concerning the
conflict while at the same time allowing for an understanding of the reasons
behind its taking place and how it can be resolved. It will help in creating a
means through which similar studies in future can base their efforts in such a
way that enhances the scope of the study and brings about new knowledge. The
CAR conflict is one of the most unique on the African continent because it has
taken on several twists that have forced individuals who lived side by side in
peace for decades to end up in a situation where they not only hate one
another, and have become bitter rivals, but that have also ended up not seeing
any potential for reconciliation between them. A consequence of this situation
has been that there has been a considerable increase in the levels of ethnic
and religious cleansings in the country and this is to such an extent that there
has developed a risk of the country descending into further chaos that will
essentially lead it to becoming a failed state with little chance of becoming
viable unless a partition is concluded. The CAR conflict is therefore important
in the study because it is one that has essentially become so involved and has
so many rival interests that the parties within it do not seem to have the
focus necessary to ensure that they develop a viable vision for the future of
their country.
Literature Review
The
main reason for the development of the conflict in the CAR was the
dissatisfaction expressed by the members of some communities in the country
concerning their marginalization by the government. This was especially the
case considering that there were a number of communities which felt that since
the CAR gained independence, they had essentially been provided with little
opportunity to advance in society. Instead, they were not only marginalized,
but they were also forced to live under the dominance of other communities. In
addition, the involvement of Chad in the internal affairs of the CAR,
especially in the interest of propping up its unpopular leaders, was viewed
negatively by the population and this was to such an extent that it led to the
formation of rebel groups whose major aim was to topple the existing political
order. The following literature review will seek to trace the course of the CAR
conflict from the time it began in earnest in 2012.
Formation
of the Seleka
One
of the most significant factors to take place in the CAR conflict was the
creation of the Seleka coalition, which was essentially an alliance of mainly
Muslim rebel groups. These groups sought to ensure that there was the
advancement of the cause of the Muslim community in the country because they
felt that they had been marginalized for a long time. In addition, the Seleka
sought to ensure that there was the creation of a voice for the Muslim
population in the country in such a way that promoted their interests while at
the same time provided them with a means of attaining power (Marchal, 2015). The Seleka coalition was formed mainly to
counter the CAR government, under President Francois Bozize, which had made a
concerted effort to ensure that there was the swift destruction of those rebel
groups that were still opposed to his rule. Furthermore, Bozize relied heavily
on Chadian intervention to ensure that he hang on to power; a situation that did
not go down well with those rebel groups that felt that a foreign country was
interfering in CAR’s domestic affairs (Van Wyk, 2013). The rapid successes of the Seleka forces on the
field against government forces ensured that they gained considerable support
from the population, especially among Muslims, and this created a situation
where they were able to move swiftly towards the capital, Bangui. The swift
movement of the Seleka forces seems to have caught the government by surprise
and this was to such an extent that it lost the support of part of the
population, which cited government failure to stop the rebel advance (Hamilton, 2013). Protests in Bangui were targeted at the French
embassy, because the population felt that France, CAR’s former colonizer, had
failed to prevent the rebels from advancing on the capital. However, France
stated its commitment to be based solely on protecting French citizens in the
country rather than getting involved in its domestic affairs (Iltis, 2014).
Bozize
Government Appeals
The
rapid rebel advance towards the capital created considerable unrest in some
parts of the country because of the belief that the government was not doing
enough to handle the situation. This was especially considering that government
forces had suffered numerous defeats at the hands of the Seleka coalition and
had in the process lost critical supplies such as weapons, which had fallen
into rebel hands (Kisangani, 2015). In order to ensure that there was a halt to the
rebel advances; Francois Bozize made appeals to the international community,
especially the United States and France. He requested that these countries send
in their forces in order to prevent the Seleka forces from reaching the capital
and essentially halt their advance (Welz, 2014).
However, these appeals were not well received within the international
community because rather than offering to help, France and the United States
stated that they were only committed to protecting their citizens in the CAR.
In addition, both of these countries declared that they would be working
towards the evacuation of their citizens and other nationals from the CAR,
essentially ignoring government appeals for help in the resolution of the
crisis (Smith, 2015).
It is likely that both France and the United States failed to consider the
seriousness of the situation because if they had, they might have acted in such
a way that prevented the bloodshed and strife that has essentially made the CAR
become a failed state. The ethical situation that these countries faced was a
choice of whether or not to intervene, with both ending up in a situation where
they felt that to do so may have been too costly for them. Therefore, the CAR
crisis, despite the presence of regional peacekeeping forces, descended into
chaos because the local actors could not come to terms concerning their vision
for their country.
Peace
Talks
Attempts
at bringing an end to the conflict in the CAR through peace talks were made.
Both sides of the conflict were forced to the process because of the presence
of peacekeeping forces under the auspices of the African Union. These
peacekeeping forces sought to ensure that there were no further rebel advances
while at the same time promoting the peaceful resolution to the conflict (Boré, 2014).
However, despite talks taking place between the government and the rebels of
the Seleka coalition, there seems to have been no tangible efforts made to
ensure that there was the resolution of the core problems that had led to the
conflict in the first place. The Bozize government promoted the idea of the
formation of a national unity government whose aim was to ensure a swift end to
the conflict, while the Seleka coalition sought to have Bozize removed from power.
The root causes of the problems that plagued the CAR were not addressed
satisfactorily because despite the talks taking place, they did not prevent the
violence and crackdowns that were promoted by the government and rebels alike (Ernhede, 2016). One of the most significant issues of
contention during this period was that the government of Bozize often arrested
those individuals who were believed to be from ethnic groups that supported the
Seleka coalition (Kah, 2013).
The arrests and disappearances of these individuals created a situation where
there were concerns about the viability of peace talks. It created a situation
where the Seleka rebels found it difficult to participate, and they made it one
of their conditions for talks to take place that the government ceases
arresting members of those communities that supported them. Members of the
Seleka coalition were in turn accused of not respecting press freedom,
especially with a number of journalist deaths being attributed to executions (Chama, 2017).
Seleka
Takeover and Conflict with AntiBalaka
One
of the most significant events to have taken place in the CAR conflict was the
failure of the peace talks to bring about any tangible results. A consequence
was that the Seleka undertook to take advantage of their better position on the
battlefield to press their move towards Bangui. The overthrow of the Bozize
government and the takeover of the country by the Seleka leader Michel Djotodia
ensured that there was the presence of a Muslim-dominated government over the
country (De Vries & Glawion, 2015). This situation, however,
failed to consider the fact that a considerable number of Christians felt that
they had essentially been disenfranchised. This was to such an extent that
there was the formation of mainly Christian militia, named the AntiBalaka, who
sought to ensure an end to Muslim rule over their country. There was
considerable fighting between the Seleka and the AntiBalaka to such an extent
that both sides were accused of committing atrocities towards what were
perceived to be their rival religious communities (Kane, 2014).
That these conflicts were taking place in a country that had essentially been a
bastion of religious tolerance for centuries shows that the conflict had taken
a turn for the worse. Rather than seeking to solve the problems of their
country together, the people of the CAR had chosen to advance religious agendas
that were unconstructive to the process. The Seleka and AntiBalaka militias
became means through which the religious and ethnic agendas between the various
communities in the CAR became manifest. The overthrow of the Seleka government
and the disbandment of the Seleka militias essentially led to the creation of
rival ex-Seleka forces that fought one another based on ethnic grounds (Ulfelder, 2014). The failure of a united front among the Muslims
of the country seems to have worsened the humanitarian situation for the Muslim
community because the AntiBalaka militia has taken advantage of the fact to
undertake religious cleansing that has seen thousands of Muslim dead, with the
worst atrocities taking place in the capital Bangui.
Religious
Violence and Cleansing
Among
the most significant arguments that have been made concerning the disarmament
process in the CAR is that it was not conducted proportionally. This is because
the main focus of the disarmament effort seems to have been made almost exclusively
on the Seleka, and this ensured that the AntiBalaka had the upper hand in the
conflict. The result was that because the AntiBalaka had the upper hand, they
took advantage of the situation to ensure that they undertook to drive Muslims
from some of their communities and neighborhoods (Carayannis & Fowlis, 2017). The religious cleansing of
some neighborhoods and communities of Muslims ensured that the latter were
essentially internally displaced in their own countries. This situation took
place despite the fact that many of these individuals had lived together with
their Christian neighbors for decades. The religious violence committed by the
AntiBalaka has been compared to the atrocities committed in Bosnia, because
people were forced into situations where they moved into religiously cleansed
neighborhoods, so that Christians and Muslims lived within their own
communities rather than together (Ewane, 2014).
Massacres were reported to have been committed by the AntiBalaka on the Muslim
civilian population to such an extent that many of the latter were forced to
flee the country in order to attain safety (Jenks, 2015).
There were also reports of Muslims being cannibalized; a situation that shows
the animosity that had grown towards the Muslim population of the CAR (Käihkö & Utas, 2014). The religious cleansing can
also be considered to have been a manifestation of the historical antagonism
that has been prevalent between nomadic pastoralists, represented by the
Seleka, and agriculturalists, represented by the AntiBalaka. The attacks
against one another seems to have led to a situation where reconciliation has
become extremely difficult because the animosity between Christians and Muslims
has created a great divide between individuals that have lived together,
despite their religious beliefs, for a long time.
Ethnic
Violence
The
CAR conflict, following the rise in religious violence, also led to a situation
where ethnic violence also developed. The ethnic violence developed especially
following the dissolution of the Seleka forces, with the latter breaking up
into rival militia groups such as the FPRC and the UPC. The FPRC had the
support of the Gula and Runga people, while the UPC was largely made up of the
Fulani people (Dukhan, 2016).
These two militia groups essentially sought to attain very tribal objectives,
with the religious unity that had kept them together ending because of the
belief that they were not seeking the same objectives. The FPRC and the UPC ended
up in a situation where they attacked each other’s supporters in a bid to gain
the upper hand in the conflict that has largely occupied the northern and
western parts of the CAR (Arieff, 2014).
Such incidents as house-to-house searches in a bid to find members of rival
communities escalated to such an extent that a considerable number of
civilians, perhaps in their hundreds, ended up getting killed (Weyns, Hoex, Hilgert, & Spittaels, 2014). The ethnic violence in the
CAR can be considered one of the most devastating results of its political
crisis because there has been no order or proper government authority to ensure
that safety of civilians. In addition, because of the failure of peace deals as
well as the lack of commitment to end the conflict effectively, the door of
ethnic violence has been left wide open and criminal elements seem to have
essentially attained free reign when it comes to the advancement of their own
agendas. The levels of lootings, abductions, and killings seem to have risen to
such proportions that the ethnic violence that took place was used as a cover
for such crimes. Therefore, the example of the conflict between the FPRC and
the UPC can be considered manifestations of the ethnic violence between the
Gula and Runga, on one hand, and the Fulani on the other.
A
Generally Hostile Environment
For
the duration of the CAR conflict, and the manner through which it has
deteriorated, the country has become one of the most dangerous places in the
world. This is because the number of security incidents that have taken place
have become even more than cases in other conflict zones in the world.
Humanitarian aid workers in the country have become targets of criminal attacks
by individuals who are not associated with any militia group (Welz, 2014).
These individuals, who are essentially criminals, have ended up attacking the
humanitarian aid workers despite the latter seeking to ensure that there is the
delivery of aid to the people of the CAR. The considerable danger faced by
humanitarian workers has led to a situation where humanitarian missions in the
CAR are not as effective as they should be (Langenbach & Bach Baouab, 2015). In addition, a considerable
number of healthcare facilities have either been damaged or destroyed, and this
has made the humanitarian crisis in the country much worse because the
individuals who require these facilities the most no longer have access.
Furthermore, the conflict has led to a large number of jail breaks, especially
inmates from both the Christian and Muslim militias, which has led to a
situation where the security situation in the country has become critical (Dukhan, 2016).
With few law courts functioning normally, with many of these being in the
capital, criminal offenders are no longer being effectively prosecuted and
punished and this may be a contributing factor to the hostile environment that
has developed in the CAR since the inception of the conflict. An analysis of
this situation could go a long way in not only getting an understanding of the
CAR, but also of the manner through which conflict can negate the effectiveness
of state institutions. The circumstances surrounding the CAR conflict have
taken on numerous proportions because what started as an armed conflict aimed
at achieving political representation very quickly adopted deeply religious,
criminal, and ethnic dimensions.
Displacement
The
CAR conflict has led to a situation where a considerable part of the population
has become either internally displaced or has sought refuge in neighboring
countries. This is an extremely serious situation because it has come to affect
a significant part of the people who once lived in harmony with one another
before the conflict began. One of the most significant victims of the conflict
has been the Muslim population, which has essentially been driven out of the
south and east of the country (Lombard & Batianga-Kinzi, 2014). In addition, the city of
Bangui, which had a population of more than a hundred thousand Muslims has
ended up having less than a thousand; a sign that the persecution of the Muslim
population has been rampant. The conflict between the Seleka and the AntiBalaka
seems to have fueled the massive population movement as those perceived to be
supporters of rival groups ended up having to run for their lives (Dawson, 2014).
While the exact number of those who have fled the conflict to other countries
as well as those who have been internally displaced is not known, it is likely
that the total number runs into the millions. Most of the displacement has been
blamed on the AntiBalaka militia, which has had a massive hand in the
atrocities that have been committed against the Muslim community in some parts
of the country (Van Wyk, 2015). The disbandment of the Seleka essentially left
the Muslims at a disadvantage because the AntiBalaka gained the upper hand in
the conflict while the Seleka forces became embroiled in their own internal
conflicts (Arieff, 2014).
Therefore, a study of the displacement of some of the population of the CAR is
important in better understanding a dimension of the conflict, especially in
terms of the manner through which it has become a humanitarian catastrophe. It
also shows the religious and ethnic perspectives concerning the conflict and
how they evolved to their present state.
International
Response
The
international response to the CAR conflict has been varied with some countries
becoming actively engaged while others were only observers. The varied response
can be considered to have been based on the importance of the CAR to national
interests because there were situations where some countries were deeply
involved in the conflict through sending strong contingents of peacekeeping
missions while others only condemned the violence and called for dialogue
between the conflicting parties (Arieff, 2014).
The countries that were thought to have had the most interest in ensuring that
there was peace in the CAR, namely the United States and France, essentially
declined to be involved in the conflict (Ewane, 2014).
These countries had the power to ensure that the escalation of violence was
stopped and that the rebels were forced to come to terms with the government.
However, this turned out not to be the case because the United States and
France concentrated their military presence in the CAR to the protection and
evacuation of their citizens. The lack of action by these countries to ensure
the de-escalation of the CAR conflict has in some cases been considered one of
the most irresponsible actions by members of the international community, to
such an extent that it has been compared to France’s inaction during that
genocide in Rwanda (Iltis, 2014).
Therefore, the analysis of the international response to the CAR crisis is
critical to the further understanding of the course of the conflict because it
will allow for the development of a perspective concerning how the crisis is
likely to be resolved. In addition, it will be possible to develop an
understanding of the reasons behind the limited response of the international
community in the CAR crisis, because of the unexpected turn of events that took
place since its beginning, morphing from a political conflict, that one that
had ethnic and religious dimensions.
