Aristotle: Friendship and Virtue

 

Friendship is an essential aspect of life which individuals cannot live without. A result is that it is considered to be a feeling that is not only related to virtues, but is a virtue in itself. This is important because it allows individuals to ensure that they achieve a level of prosperity in their societies without any fear of losing what they have acquired. Friendship makes it possible for these individuals to live comfortably because they have friends around them who will ensure that they protect them against any harm. Therefore, friendship ensures that the creation of a society where individuals depend on each other’s good will for their security as well as the advancement and protection of their prosperity. It is a virtue because it helps young people when it comes to preventing them from making mistakes that they might end up regretting. In addition, as individuals become older and have physical limitations, it is friendship which allows them to have the ability to complete tasks that would otherwise have been too heavy for them. A consequence of friendship, therefore, involves the development of a situation where individuals provide each other with support so that they can think and act in concert in order to achieve their mutual goals.

Do the current statutory media control and diversity rules in the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 (Cth) (“BSA”) serve the public interest in today’s media environment?

One of the most fundamental aspects of the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 is that it seeks to promote a situation where the Australian media is regulated significantly for the purpose of safeguarding the national broadcasting environment. This bill is essential for in serving the public interest because it provides the necessary allowances and regulations to the type of material that broadcasters can provide for public consumption. One of the most significant aspects of this bill is that it promotes the removal of genre restrictions that would otherwise have hindered the advancement of the Australian media to suit the interests of those individuals in society who would like greater diversity in their programming. Furthermore, in the interests of the public, this bill is also important because it allows commercial broadcasters to have a greater opportunity for multichannelling, which they were previously not allowed to have. This is a significant step because the public has an opportunity to have a wide range of channels to view outside those that are dominated by national broadcasters; meaning that there is a wider variety of information that they can access outside those that are essentially censored by the state. In the contemporary media world, it is a significant step especially considering that a growing number of individuals are developing special interests which can be fulfilled to a greater extent through the presence of more specialized channels whose content that can view and enjoy.

The rapidly advancing media world means that there is need to ensure that the interests of local media are safeguarded and the BSA is an essential aspect of this endeavor. This is mainly because it is through the advancement of commercial media services that it will be possible for locally made content to remain dominant in the market especially considering that there is massive competition from media from other countries, especially the United States. The influence of foreign media can, therefore, be contained through this bill because, while it does not provide any significant restrictions on foreign media, it allows for privately owned local media outlets to ensure that they have a greater share of the market. This is extremely important especially considering that it is through the willingness of the BSA to allow for a reduction in the influence of national broadcasters that it is possible to bring about the competition that is needed to make sure that there is a significant improvement in the quality of programming that is provided locally. Healthy competition in media is a necessary aspect of contemporary society because it makes it possible for broadcasters to make sure that they are able to better connect with their audiences in a bid to find out their interests and work towards the development of content that is closely linked to these interests. The ability of broadcasters to bring about greater diversity is, therefore, safeguarded within this bill because it helps to advance the interests of local broadcasters when it comes to a higher quality of programming while at the same time creating the diversity that is needed to ensure that most of the population in the country is able to receive content that is in line with its interests.

This bill is also essential in the development of an environment where, while commercial broadcasters are provided with greater freedom to operate, those with the potential of promoting content that is harmful to the public will be restricted. Such a situation would make sure that commercial broadcasters have a greater responsibility towards their audiences when it comes to their content. Moreover, through this step, it will be possible for the government to make sure that media content that might prove to be a threat to the public, such as channels that advance the cause of terrorism organizations, are kept out of the public sphere; allowing Australians to live their lives as freely as possible. The need to regulate commercial broadcasters is in the public interest and this can best be done through restriction to the allocation of licenses, as stated in the bill. The BSA provides for greater involvement of the government when it comes to the allocation of broadcasting licenses, with the minister taking a direct hand when it comes to content that might be contrary to the interests of the public. In this way, it will be possible to make sure that the regulation of content in media remains constant while at the same time providing for the advancement of local content in media that promote the Australian way of life.

Social Inequality

The increasing level of social inequality in the contemporary world is a source of concern within society. This is as a result of the widening gap between the rich and the poor in society to such an extent that the latter have ended up in situations where they cannot hope to improve their lives for the better. Also, the rich, in the process of seeking to attain even more wealth, have ended up forcing making use of those resources that could have been utilized for the purpose of alleviating poverty among individuals in society. Despite the presence of a welfare system, it is not robust enough to cater for the needs of the poor while at the same time helping them rise above poverty. This paper seeks to analyze the nature and causes of poverty as well as the theoretical frameworks that deal with the issue of inequality.

One of the biggest causes of social inequality is that the economy is controlled by the rich, who make use of the available natural resources to become richer. The rich few people in the world have taken over the most crucial means of production; essentially forcing the rest of society to work for them or buy products from them. The result has been that a significant number of those individuals who do not have any means of making a decent living have ended up in a situation where they have been reduced to poverty. The latter tend to have very few opportunities to advance themselves in society, meaning that they have to ensure that they do the best that they can to make ends meet with minimal support (Parish, 1988). The rich, on the other hand, often seek to increase their wealth, but this process often comes at a price because it encourages unequal development in society. There is little that the poor can do to protect their own interests because the rich have both the means and the power to ensure that they are able to attain considerable control over most of the wealth and resources within their own societies. As a result of the power that they derive from their wealth, the rich have the ability to ensure that they not only achieve dominance over the rest of society, but also advance their own interests in a way that is often against the interests of the poor.

The rich often seek to protect their interests through influencing government towards establishing favorable policies to them. The result is that a significant number of rich people in society end up being given access to numerous resources while at the same time not paying their fair share of taxes. This is a situation of concern because government ends up not having enough money that can be used in the establishment of a welfare program that is not only efficient, but also caters for the needs of the poor in diverse circumstances. Furthermore, as a result of the actions of the rich, it becomes extremely difficult for the poor to have the much needed opportunities to bring about their advancement in society. These individuals do not often have the educational qualifications to attain sustainable jobs in the current highly competitive economy; meaning that they have few opportunities to improve their lives. The unequal relationship between the rich and the poor in society can be explained through the Marxist theory, which proposes that society is divided into two distinct groups; the bourgeoisie, who control the means of production, and the proletariat, who provide the labor that the former need to ensure that they exploit the resources under their control. Thus, due to their need to not only maintain their power, but also increase their wealth, the bourgeoisie end up seeking to control even more resources; essentially ensuring that the proletariat remains subservient to them while still providing the labor that they need.

The Marxist perspective, therefore, proposes that social inequality comes about as a result of class struggle, or social conflict. The continuous struggle within the bourgeoisie, as well as the bourgeoisie against the proletariat and vice versa is essential in understanding social conflict because it promotes the idea that the different classes in society are often in conflict with each other. A consequence of this conflict is that a considerable number of individuals in society have ended up sinking into poverty while a very few have not only become rich, but have increased their wealth many times over. The resulting social inequality has created a potential for significant class conflict in the years to come, especially considering an increasing number of individuals have become poorer because of the social policies that have been established to protect the interests of the rich. The potential for conflict has become so great that it is possible that there will be an attempt, as Marx predicted, by the underprivileged classes in society to overthrow the rich in order to establish a just society. In most communities within the United States, specifically in large cities such as New York, the differences between the lifestyles of the rich and the poor can be seen through the manner that communities are separated. The rich live in exclusive neighborhoods that are not only secure, but also have all the amenities that they need. The poor, on the other hand, live in an insecure environment that is dominated by crime, low level of essential services, and high incidences of lack of basic needs; a sure sign of the inequality that has become dominant in society.

Additionally, the rise in inequality has led to a reduction in instances of social and economic justice. Social and economic justice is a situation where all individuals in society, no matter their class or status, are able to achieve a relatively high standard of living. Also, it involves individuals being able to ensure that they promote their own interests through having equal opportunities both within a social and economic context. Therefore, in the interest of advancing social and economic justice, the application of the Marxist theory is essential in creating equal opportunities. This perspective is one that promotes social equality where resources are owned by the entire community rather than by individuals. However, only essential property should remain in private hands, which individuals in society to have an equal share in the resources available while at the same time ensuring that individuals have equal opportunities for self development. The availability of equal opportunities would, however, involve taking away the significant power that capitalists hold over society. The nationalization of natural resources is an essential step in making sure that the state remains in the service of all people, without discrimination, rather than supporting the interests of a few people who form the elite. Moreover, in a society where all the people enjoy the available natural resources, social and economic justice can be achieved in a way that prevents the rise of class conflict.

In conclusion, the increase in the level of inequality in the contemporary world can be attributed to the way that a small number of individuals have come to gain control over a majority of the resources in society. Through this control, it has become possible to ensure that they continue further enriching themselves at the expense of both consumers and their workers. Therefore, in order to ensure that there is an end to inequality and the implementation of social and economic justice, it is essential for a Marxist-leaning type of society to be established.

Reference

Parish, R. (1988). Messages from a Welfare Mom. Newsweek.

Syrians horrified by 'crime of no honour' killing By Lina Shaikhouni and Chris Bell

A video documenting the brutal murder of a young woman in Syria has been met with outrage and horror online - and shone a renewed spotlight on so-called "honour killings" in the country.

The young woman, identified by Syrian news outlets and social media users as "Rasha Bseis", was shot repeatedly with an automatic rifle in the rebel-held town of Jarablus, near the Turkish border, by a man reported to be her brother. Some said the young woman was under 18 years of age.

The BBC has not been able to independently verify these reports.

In the video, a young woman cowers against a wall as a man stands over her with a gun. He opens fire, kicking dust up from the floor and wall. A voice in the background yells "wash away your shame".

The video has been widely viewed and shared online. A report on the Lebanese Al-Modon news website said police were investigating and an arrest warrant had been issued for the man.

'Crime of no honour'

Activists responded with a campaign to denounce so-called "honour" violence.

A graphic of the murdered woman looking fearfully into the camera, featuring the caption "crime of no honour", has been circulating online since Monday, BBC Monitoring reported.

Kish Malek (Check Mate), a civil society organisation based in southern Turkey, was among activist groups to publish the image on Facebook.

"A young man from the city of Jarablus has killed his sister after direct instigation by his friend allegedly to 'wash her of shame'," the organisation posted.

"The instigator filmed the crime and published it on social media networks," it added.

Sharing the image, Syrian NGO Women Now for Development issued a statement demanding justice for Rasha Bseis.

"Rasha is not only the victim of the spread of weapons and lapses in security, she is the victim of a dangerous social concept, under the pretext of 'shame washing' as an accepted - and sometimes encouraged - punishment," they wrote.

A copy of their statement would be sent to the local council governing Jarablus and all other concerned legal bodies, the organisation noted.

Syrian writer and women's rights activist Rima Flihan told the BBC there are no accurate statistics for honour killings in Syria but that "Syria and the Middle East had ranked highly in previous global statistics".

"I have worked in successive campaigns since 2005 in Syria to counter what is described as honour crimes," she said.

"The crime is encouraged by a law that is lenient on the murderer and a society which partly reduces a family's honour to a woman's body."

In 2009, Syria scrapped a law limiting or waiving punishment for men convicted of killing female relatives they regarded as having illicit sex.

At the time, Human Rights Watch said the measure did not go far enough. The law introduced a minimum two-year sentence for perpetrators of so-called "honour killings".

Since 2011, the conflict in Syria has claimed more than 350,000 lives. Ms Flihan says the chaos in Syria as a result of the war has made the problem of so-called "honour killings" worse.

"The presence of extremist groups in some areas encourages such crimes, and so does the law in others," she said.

"In both cases, the woman is the victim."

However, she told the BBC that the reaction to such crimes shows some positive change.

"I have noticed through monitoring people's comments on these crimes that there is a wider section of society that are rejecting and condemning them," she said.

Anna Dovgalyuk: Why do people think her 'manspreading' video is a Kremlin hoax?

Millions of people around the world have watched a viral video that appears to show a woman taking direct action against "manspreading". So why do some think it is actually Kremlin-backed disinformation?

A woman creeps up to unsuspecting men on the St Petersburg Metro. The men are taking up lots of space, with their legs wide open. Before they can react, the woman dumps a bottle of diluted bleach onto their trousers. It's enough to make a stain, although not strong enough to cause serious injury.

The video was made by Anna Dovgalyuk, a Russian activist, student and social media star. And it racked up millions of views before being removed from YouTube.

The story was picked up by numerous news websites and caused a huge online uproar. Comments heaped praise, scorn, and more extreme threats of violence on Anna and others involved with the video.

But along with the video's viral spread came questions. Was it staged? And also was it - as some believe - a crafted piece of propaganda, sponsored and spread by the Russian government? And if it was, what was the aim?

Anna Dovgalyuk is relatively new to YouTube activism. The video was only her second post on the platform. Her first also had a feminist theme, and was also shot on the St Petersburg Metro. It was a protest against upskirting - taking photos up women's skirts - and showed a model (not Anna) lifting her dress to show passengers her underwear.

That video also got a lot of coverage, and prompted Anna to turn her attention to a project attacking "manspreading" - the phenomenon of men on public transport who sit with their legs wide open or otherwise inconvenience fellow passengers by taking up too much space.

"I thought that it was one of those problems which should be highlighted, that people should be made aware of," she told BBC Trending.

The video went up in late September, and was clocking up views at a rate of a million a day. But almost immediately, questions were raised about its authenticity.

An online news outlet in St Petersburg called Bumaga quoted a man who supposedly appeared in her video, admitting that he was paid to sit on the train and get squirted. Bumaga reproduced a post by the man on the Russian social network Vkontakte. (His account was deleted and the BBC could not immediately reach the man for comment).

Additionally, in the video, Anna states that it was created "in assistance with friends who share my position."

Speaking to the BBC, she denied that it was staged or that anyone was paid to get diluted bleach thrown on them.

"This is some completely random guy," she says, "I don't know what kind of actor he considers himself to be... but there is no evidence, it's just somebody's claim."

'Staged Kremlin propaganda'

The story took another turn when a European Union project to combat Russian misinformation, EUvsDisinfo, called the video "staged Russian propaganda".

According to this theory, the stunt was part of the Kremlin's surreptitious online interventions into various culture wars around the world, and designed to provide evidence that Western-style feminism has gone too far.

The EUvsDisinfo report gave the video another burst of publicity - and several of the same outlets which credulously reported on the video when it went viral ran reports with the European Union's take.

EUvsDisinfo cited two main pieces of evidence: the Bumaga report, and also the fact that the video was picked up and repackaged by a Kremlin-funded social media venture called In The NOW, which has more than three million likes on Facebook. In The NOW also has accounts on Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat and YouTube.

But In The NOW began as a TV programme on Russia Today - now known as RT.

RT and the news agency Sputnik, are directly funded by the Kremlin. Western governments as well as media critics have called them propaganda outlets.

And EUvsDisinfo sees the dark arts of the Kremlin at work in Anna's video and its treatment by In the NOW. "The video stages extreme feminist activism and manages to provoke extreme anti-feminist reactions," its post on the video concluded. EUvsDisinfo turned down a request for an interview about this story.

But is this a case of seeing Russian bogeymen where there are none? Wouldn't any social media company pick up on such clickable content?

In The NOW - which is based in Berlin - says that although it is financed by Russian government money, it has editorial independence.

"There's no top-down editorial memo that goes out, nothing like that," says J Ray Sparks, an American who is chief operating officer of Maffick, the German company that produces In The NOW. "It has never been some kind of propaganda outlet."

Although In The NOW doesn't deny that it receives money from the Russian government, this information isn't readily apparent on its Facebook page. When asked whether its mix of light-hearted stories and more serious news had ever included a video critical of Russian President Vladimir Putin, Sparks replied: "We haven't done anything recently."

In the NOW's video about Anna's manspreading stunt has racked up more than six million views.

The New World: How it is perceived

Colin Calloway’s approach to the concept of the new world is one which differs from traditional views. This is mainly because, instead of focusing mainly on the European context, he creates a balanced focus on the manner through which Native Americans and European settlers were able to interact and create a vibrant new culture. For the most part, traditional conceptions of the new world tend to attribute the establishment of history as well as organized society to European settlers and often disregards the Native Americans as being individuals who lacked history because none of their histories was written, but instead transmitted orally. As a result, the history of the new world has come to be recorded from the time of European settlement and the contribution of the Native Americans to the development of the new society have been totally forgotten because of the Eurocentric view of them as being savages. However, Calloway is able to bring together the histories of both European settlers and Native Americans in such a way that promotes the idea of their having interacted and each having affected the lives of the other. The American culture, according to Calloway, did not just come up as a result of European settlement, and instead, it came about because both Europeans and Native Americans made their contributions to it; bringing about a unique culture that has become dominant in the whole country. Thus, Calloway considers Native Americans to have been advanced enough both socially and culturally to have an influence on the Europeans who ended up settling amongst them; in contrast to the traditional meaning of the new world.

One of the most significant aspects of the interactions between European settlers and Native Americans, covered by Calloway, is that it led to the spread of diseases that were prevalent in Europe into Native American populations. The spread of these diseases was not done intentionally, but instead, it came about as a result of the interaction between a small number of Native Americans and settlers, mainly through trade (Calloway, 2013, p.50). These diseases were most prevalent in trade routes and this is the main reason why the first people to get infected were often the Native Americans who lived close to these routes or in whose settlements Europeans travelled through. These individuals would in turn, as a result of other Native Americans further into the interior, end up infecting the latter; thus resulting in massive deaths from diseases which traditional Native medicine could not cure. The large number of Native Americans throughout the Americas who ended up dying did not do so because of direct interactions with European settlers, because a majority of them had not set eyes on a European before (Calloway, 2013, p.50). Instead, the diseases spread because of interactions between those Native Americans who had interacted with Europeans, and those who had not. The depopulation of some areas which came about as a result can be considered to be based, not on malice on the part of European settlers, but on the ignorance between the latter and the Native Americans concerning the dangers of European diseases. In this way, Calloway seems to blame disease, rather than the violent interactions between Europeans and Native Americans in the form of wars that would come up in later years, as the case of the loss of large populations of Native Americans.

According to Calloway, the peaceful interactions that took place between the Native Americans and European settlers tended to be based on the self-interest of the latter. This is because in their settlement of a new land, of which they were unfamiliar, they needed the Native Americans more than the Native Americans needed them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). Europeans considered Native Americans to be potential trade partners, and they actively sought to establish trade links aimed at bringing the latter into the economic system that had been established by the Europeans. Furthermore, European missionaries were eager to convert Native Americans to Christianity and these often sought to ensure that this objective was accomplished by going directly to their villages and ministering to them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). The result was that there was a significant growth of contact between these populations to such an extent that they were able to achieve a high level of cultural exchange. Thus, while some Europeans went to settle among the Native Americans, and even adopted some of their customs, some of the latter also chose to discard their own lifestyles and settle among Europeans. In this way, such scenarios as Europeans having tattooed their faces like Native Americans and Native Americans drinking tea became quite common. The creation of a hybrid society which involved the adoption of elements of both European and Native American cultures took place. Through the analysis that he makes concerning the interactions between Native Americans and Europeans, Calloway ensures that he disputes the prevalent narrative about the often hostile interactions between the settlers and the natives, and instead brings out a more positive outlook of these interactions.

Jill Lapore explores the concept of literacy and the means of transmitting history in the context of the new world. She states that the history of Native Americans has been for the most part disregarded because they did not maintain written records (Lapore, 1994). This disregard began to take place during the early European settlement of the Americas and has continued to the twenty first century where written records are considered to be the means through which history can be recorded. However, the disregard of Native American history does not take into account the fact that unlike European history, which was written down, Native American history, was kept through oral tradition. These oral traditions have instead come to be regarded as myths because there are no contemporary written records to verify their authenticity. Lapore points out that in the seventeenth century, there were a significant number of literate Native Americans who lived in European settlements and who could have written the oral histories of their people (Lapore, 1994). However, not record is made of any attempt having been made to put down these histories. Lapore suggests that the main reason behind this lack of written history of the Native Americans is that in order to achieve literacy, Native Americans were required to completely discard the traditions of their own people and instead adopt the Europeans lifestyle. This meant having to adopt Christianity, speak English, and live in European settlements. The result was that many of these individuals ended up losing touch with their own people; instead living at the periphery of Native Americans and Europeans since they were no longer fully accepted by either (Lapore, 1994). These individuals could therefore not write down the oral histories of their people for fear of being rejected by the Europeans whose culture they had adopted.

Another aspect of Native American and European interaction is discussed by William Cronon who considers this interaction from the European standpoint. For most Europeans who settled in the new world, the vastness of the land and its wilderness was incomprehensible because in Europe most of the land had been utilized and the wilderness that remained was in private hands (Cronon, 2003, p.33). When they considered the Native Americans and the simple life that they led surrounded by such abundance, they came to believe that the Native Americans were lazy. Furthermore, this concept of laziness was further enhanced because it was the women, rather than the men in Native American communities who farmed while the men hunted. In Europe, it was the men’s task to farm the land; enforcing the belief that Native American men were lazy. Cronon points out that these perceptions by Europeans were wrong because Native American societies were organized differently. Native Americans often sought to use the land according to their own needs rather than using it abundantly in order to create a surplus, the way the Europeans did (Cronon, 2003, p.122). Additionally, they often sought to make sure that they utilized what they had effectively, especially in winter months when, in situations where there was impending scarcity, these people tended to choose to go hungry in order to utilize the remaining food for as long as possible. These were customs that Europeans failed to understand and would make them enforce their dominance in society in a bid to promote their own way of life, which they thought was superior.

The common perceptions concerning American history, especially its origins, should be changed. This is because despite eventual European dominance over America, American history was not made up only by the European settlers. Instead, Native Americans also made significant contributions while they too were influenced by European culture. American history can be considered as an amalgamation of these two distinct cultures, which brought about a new culture that was adapted to a new environment as a result of interactions between Native Americans and Europeans. A full understanding of American history cannot be achieved without the inclusion of the peaceful interactions that took place between Native Americans and Europeans, because the contributions of the former is one of the main factors that brought about the success of settlements, which in turn brought about American history.

References

Calloway, C.G. (2013). New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America. Boston: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cronon, W. (2003). Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang, 2003.

Lapore, J. (1994). Dead Men Tell No Tales: John Sassamon and the Fatal Consequences of Literacy. American Quarterly, 46(4): 497 – 512.

Zimbabwe: its history and fight for independence

The land of Zimbabwe was settled by the British in 1890 and named Rhodesia after its founder, Cecil John Rhodes, who believed that the British had the right of imperial rule in Africa because they were the “first race in the world and therefore the more of the world they inhabited, the better it would be for the human race”. It is this ideology which served as the basis of the discriminatory colonial policies that were set up to serve the interests of the white minority which had settled most of the best land in the country, and excluded the African majority who had virtually no rights in their own land. These policies led to the demand for change by the Africans within the limitations of the colonial constitution and when this did not work, the African nationalists became more radical when they realised that violence and bloodshed were inevitable if there was to be any change in the country. It was the stress of this oppression that forced the people of Zimbabwe to take up arms as the only solution to their problems. The armed struggle was led by two political parties namely the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) which had splintered from ZAPU. These two nationalist organisations got a lot of support from external forces which contributed to the success of the liberation movement in Zimbabwe.

These external forces consisted mainly of neighbouring independent African states – known as the frontline states, other armed liberation movements in neighbouring countries, and the Communist bloc led by China and the Soviet Union. The Communist bloc through the Organisation of African Unity (O.A.U.) gave aid to the Zimbabwean liberation movements in the form of arms and money. Some also provided training for the liberation combatants within their territories such as the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, Algeria, and Tanzania. These countries further provided instructors who trained the recruits in the camps who had come from Zimbabwe to join the struggle for majority rule. Furthermore, organisations such as the United Nations, the World Council of Churches and certain left-wing organisations in the west and in Scandinavia gave moral and financial support.

The Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) was the armed wing of ZAPU which was formed in the 1960s and had camps in Angola and in Lusaka, Zambia which were provided by the Zambian government to help in the liberation of their fellow Africans in Zimbabwe. ZIPRA’s crossing points to and from Zimbabwe were at Feira in Zambia opposite Mashonaland East. It was more influenced by the Soviet Union than by China as it adhered to Marxist-Leninist principles of mobilising the urban workers rather than the Maoist principles of mobilising the rural peasantry pursued by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, the military wing of ZANU. ZIPRA was also in a formal alliance with Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the military wing of the African National Congress in South Africa. In the mid-1960s, these two allied organisations mounted a celebrated mission into Southern Rhodesia, although this mission was not militarily successful. This mission, known as the Wankie fiasco, saw several hundred ZIPRA and MK freedom fighters enter Rhodesia through the uninhabited areas of Wankie and these were either killed or captured by a joint Rhodesian-South African force. Other countries, such as North Korea, had its military officials train the Zimbabwean freedom fighters how to use explosives and arms at a camp near Pyongyang.

ZANLA, on the other hand, was formed in 1965 in Tanzania and was heavily influenced by the Maoist guerrilla tactics that had been used very successfully by FRELIMO in Mozambique, that is, by infiltrating combatants into Zimbabwe, politicising the peasantry, and participating in ‘hit-and-run’ ambush operations. Even before Mozambique’s independence from Portugal, FRELIMO had supported ZANLA by allowing it to use the territory it controlled in Tete district along the Rhodesian border as a base of operations against the Rhodesian government. Because of its close ties with Mozambique’s FRELIMO, ZANLA gained a lot of support after Mozambique’s independence when its government permitted ZANLA to open training and supply camps along the Mozambican-Zimbabwean border which greatly assisted in the recruitment and training of troops.

The OAU member states’ meetings and resolutions concerning the white minority regime in Rhodesia induced Britain to push the United Nations to invoke mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia in 1968. However, these sanctions had many failings which included: the long period of time which had elapsed since Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1961 which had enabled the white regime to make adjustments and arrangements for the evasion of sanctions; the refusal of South Africa and Portugal to apply sanctions by continuing normal trade with Rhodesia and acting as go-betweens to market its goods and import on its behalf; and the general lack of political will on the part of most members of the United Nations to make sanctions work effectively. These sanctions against Rhodesia, although they did not work, helped to give a moral boost to the liberation movements in Zimbabwe, because despite the internal divisions within it, the OAU supported their fellow Africans in their struggle for freedom. Through its Liberation Committee, the OAU co-ordinated the material and financial support sent to the liberation movements in Zimbabwe from independent African states and from abroad. It also sought to reconcile the differences between ZANU and ZAPU, the main revolutionary groups in Zimbabwe so as to unify their forces against the common enemy. Both ZANU and ZAPU had gotten embroiled in the struggle within the Communist bloc between China and the Soviet Union about the latter’s leadership of the bloc. Each of these nationalist movements had adopted the communist doctrines of its main sponsor, such that ZAPU had adopted those of the Soviet Union while ZANU had adopted those of China. This resulted in the difficulty that kept these movements apart as well as various battles between their military wings.

The coup against the Salazar regime in Portugal in 1974 and its subsequent decolonisation policy helped the liberation movement in Zimbabwe a great deal because the white minority government lost one of its most important outlets for its exports namely, the ports of Mozambique. This coup also shocked the white regime and its main ally, South Africa, into the realisation that the African liberation movements could, through long and sustained armed struggle, force a colonial power to decolonise. This led the government of South Africa to adopt a more conciliatory approach to its relations with the newly independent black African states as well as its commitment to a political solution to the crisis in Rhodesia. South Africa was in a key position to influence Rhodesia because its roads and railways were the lifeline of the Rhodesian economy and as such was the only government in the region that was capable of putting pressure on it. The moderation of the policies of its chief ally towards its enemies led the embattled Rhodesian government to start negotiations with the African nationalists in Zimbabwe and finally to the beginning of majority rule in the country.

Cuba: What everyone needs to know

The Cuban starter pack

It has, over the years, become necessary to paint a vivid picture of Cuba from the time when it was still a Spanish colony through to the twenty first century and the struggles which this country and people have had to undergo in order to reach where they are today. It is necessary to use the format of asking questions and coming up with suitable answers to these questions so that a clearer picture of the true history of Cuba, without the bias which it has had to endure from some American writers. The discussion of the early liberation struggles of the people of this country against colonialism, first against Spain, and later against the United States, after the latter was awarded Cuba after winning its war against Spain is also necessary. Cuba had to suffer from decades during which the country was ruled by American backed dictators who suppressed the country’s interests in favor of their sponsors, mainly the United States and companies from this country. It is essential that a clear picture of how Cuba had to suffer land alienation as almost two thirds of the country’s land was either in the hands of private owners from the United States or in that of American corporations.

The events leading to the revolution and the American response to it that led this country to move into the Soviet sphere of influence are a direct result of American policy. The reasons for the success of the revolution despite the fact that it was often challenged by its more powerful neighbor to the north is that the revolution has proven its resilience. In addition, it is pertinent that a criticism of the American policies on Cuba after the revolution and suggestions of what the former could have done differently to ensure that it remained influential within Cuba. The six decades of the revolution should also discussed and this is coupled with a discussion of the circumstances that have ensured its survival to the present and the reasons why it did not collapse as soon as the Soviet Union, which was its main backer, did. One of the most fascinating factors concerning the Cuban revolution is the smooth transition of power from Fidel Castro to his brother Raul, and how the latter has presided over the liberalization of the economy so that the country can not only remain competitive on the world scene, but also for the benefit of the Cuban people.

Cuba: the land of contrast

The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the the people of Cuba since not only their standards of living but also their society changed for the better after the revolution. The revolution has ensured that the Cuban people are aware of each other’s equality and because of this, then they have to treat each other well, like a part of a greater family. This positive attitude towards each other it has enabled all workers within the Cuban economy to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled among the Cubans is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing because it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure. It is through the revolution that the Cubans became, for the first time, a united nation which was not divided by class or by interference from foreign countries such as the United States. It is only after the revolution that the Cubans came to identify their country as their own and this has created a strong nationalist feeling among them that is hard to match anywhere else in the world. The fact that the revolution has managed to survive for this long can be attributed in part to the strong sense of ownership that the Cubans have towards the revolution.

One of the legacies of the revolution is that of the achievement of literacy for all Cubans and because of this, Cuba is currently the only country in the world which has achieved a hundred percent literacy for all its citizens and all Cubans of any age have at least a basic education, a feat which even the United States, a long term rival of the revolution, has yet to achieve. The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women throughout the economy and this has been because of the belief that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is hardly any task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and in addition to the total literacy rate, the Cuban revolution has not only achieved universal healthcare for all its people, but it has also been able to develop one of the best medical healthcare systems in the world, another feat that it has accomplished without the advantages other countries have and despite the American attempts to stifle the revolution through the imposition of the trade embargo. The resilience of the Cuban revolution has also been able to raise the image of its leader, Fidel Castro, who is looked upon as a larger than life personality and who has been a thorn in the side of the United States for over five decades.

The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba and it has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. According to the book, the United States is the biggest threat to the achievements of life which the new order after the revolution has brought for the Cuban people. There has always been a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have, an action which would more likely than not destroy the achievements that have been made by Cuba so far. The obsession with Cuba which has been displayed by successive American administrations shows just how potent the revolution has become and this has been the main reason for the imposition of the trade embargo over this country. The irrational fear of the Cuban revolution by the United States government and the policies which have been adopted against it have ensured that this island nation has not had the opportunity to develop its potential to the fullest. However, despite the hostility from the United States, the Cuban revolution was able to have a lot of influence on the world scene as seen in its involvement in the protection of the government of the newly independent African country of Angola from Apartheid sponsored rebels.

Cuba was able to send more than thirty thousand troops to aid the ailing African nationalist government and it is partially because of this action that part of the military power of the oppressive Apartheid South African regime was destroyed. Furthermore, the Cuban revolution attempted to aid other countries such as Congo and Bolivia in their bid to have their own revolutions, although the latter was not successful. The book comes to the conclusion that the United States has for a long time been unfair towards the revolution through its policies and expresses the desire for better relations with Cuba especially during the Obama administration.

The Cuban Revolution and Gender

A happy Cuban woman

         The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the new man and woman in the workplace. This has allowed people to become aware that they need to treat each other well. Moreover, it has enabled all workers to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled in the workplace is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing; it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure.

       The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women in the place of work. This is because it has ensured that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is no task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and all this is due to the revolution.

The real Cuba

           The most desirable society that can be created in Cuba is one where all people within it are equal, with nobody being either above or beneath the other. Moreover, there should be gender balance in government so that it is no longer just dominated by men. In addition, a society which is just should be created, where everybody is allowed to do what they want so long as what they do does not destroy the aims of the revolution. However, the creation of such a society cannot be achieved unless several threats are dealt with swiftly. One of these is the beginning of a highly paternalistic culture in the society, where one cannot go ahead in life unless he or she is sponsored by somebody powerful in society. The second threat is the temptation to slowly introduce capitalistic features into the country in order to conform to the world economy. This is extremely dangerous because so far, the revolution has been a success and it can, therefore, not be merged with corrupting elements.

More of the real Cuba

           The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba. It has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. This state is, therefore, also the biggest threat to the achievement of life which the new order would bring to the people of Cuba. There is a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have. This, of course, is American propaganda, because there is a larger percentage of people with low standards of living in that country than in Cuba. It is exceedingly urgent for the government and people of Cuba to be wary of such temptations because to submit to them would make all the sacrifices made for the revolution to be useless.

Governance Networks

Within the last decades of the twentieth century, the concept of governance developed within political studies and the fields related to it. This concept is one that seeks to promote the idea that there is a wide variety of approaches that are required to make sure that there is an understanding of the world and the changing nature of the role of the state within the international system. Furthermore, there is the rise of the belief that governance can be used to promote the idea that the contemporary world is where individuals live in a world where there are a diversity of coexisting networks that are aimed at safeguarding the lives of individuals as well as society in general (Bush, Oosterveer, Bailey, & Mol, 2015). These networks have developed in such a way that ensures that there is the creation of a better understanding of the massive urbanization, globalization, and a diversity of other societal demands that have come about because of the considerable participation of the civil society in everyday life (Fung, 2015). This new knowledge is essential in bringing about an understanding of the way that the world is developing because it allows for the inclusion of the manner that new concepts such as the participation of the civic society has been able to establish a strong public voice in decision making. In this paper, there will be a discussion and analysis of the concept of the governance network and the manner through which it has been able to affect the world.

One of the most significant aspects of the governance network is that it has led to the argument that societies are increasingly becoming fragmented. This is mainly because of the belief that the new demands that are being made on governments has led them towards a shift from the more traditional bureaucratic order to one that is more responsive to the demands of society (Wiesel & Modell, 2014). Such interactive governments have the potential of leading towards the fragmentation of society because it involves a process where there is greater devolution of power in such a way that promotes the achievement of more efficiency when it comes to service delivery. Governance networks have also become critical when it comes to policymaking because the individuals involved in the latter tend to consult with the diverse stakeholders in society before any decisions are made (Bovaird, Stoker, Jones, Loeffler, & Pinilla Roncancio, 2016). The arbitrary decision making processes that was an essential aspect of the bureaucratic forms of government are increasingly being abandoned in favour of more open ones where there is need to seek to achieve the approval of stakeholders before policies are implemented (Denis, Ferlie, & Van Gestel, 2015; Greve, 2015). Furthermore, there has also been an increasing role of the private sector in those aspects of government that were previously the strict domain of the public sector (O'Toole, 2015). Thus, governance networks have become essential means through which to bring about a form of governmental devolution that seeks to enhance service delivery in the most efficient way possible while at the same time reducing the role of government in the process. It has also ensured that the role of government in society has essentially become blurred because the institutions involved in service delivery have their roles increasingly being taken by more specialized entities from the private sector.

The latter collaborative arrangements have made it possible for governments to undertake their tasks in a manner that is more supervisory than active. Governance networks have ensured that there is an increase in the proliferation of governance arrangements either with the private sector or other governments with the aim of bringing about a more efficient achievement of goals (Page, Stone, Bryson, & Crosby, 2015). This is especially the case considering that there are some governance networks which have developed between a local government, other governments, as well as the private sector with the aim of seeking to achieve the best possible results when it comes to undertaking their functions. These new collaborations have essentially made it possible for governance networks to become more common in the contemporary world to such an extent that they have become the norm. It is currently normal for individuals to expect that network arrangements will bring them the services that they need without a complete reliance on their governments to provide the services (Vangen, Hayes, & Cornforth, 2015). Governments have ended up becoming facilitators and guarantors rather than the actual providers of services; meaning that there has developed a necessity that there is the establishment of newer networks to increase efficiency. It has also become possible for a new layer of governance to appear within local governments, with these layers playing a significant role when it comes to the development of strong initiatives aimed at enhancing efficiency while at the same time reducing the role of government (Kapucu, Hu, & Khosa, 2017). The various stakeholders in society have also come to have a say in the management of their own governments and how services are delivered. However, despite this being the case, it is essential to approach governance networks with caution because despite their being widespread, they have not been as widely adopted as expected.

Governance networks have brought about a greater understanding of the role that networks can play in enhancing the role of governments. This is because it involves an understanding of the manner through which the complexity of the multi-governmental landscape has become a necessity in the contemporary world (De Vries, Bekkers, & Tummers, 2016). It is necessary to consider that governance networks have essentially made it possible for there to be the creation of means through which to bring about the interaction between a diversity of actors in society in such a way that promotes the interests of all involved because there is devolution of functions (Borg, Toikka, & Primmer, 2015). Furthermore, it has become possible for these actors to come to terms with each other’s capabilities in such a way that helps to bring about the achievement of means through which to promote the diversification of functions towards the achievement of common goals. Thus, it can be argued that politicians and administrators have become the main actors when it comes to the promotion of societal interests and this has been in such a way that they have come to be seen as the guarantors of public services (Bryson, Crosby, & Bloomberg, 2014; Head & Alford, 2015). However, despite the achievement of this objective, it has become essential to consider that these individuals have gained considerable power over a diversity of functions. This is especially the case considering that these individuals might end up abusing their power to ensure that they serve the interests of their respective organizations or lobbies that sponsored them towards attaining their positions (Howlett & Ramesh, 2016). Therefore, there should be a process where there is the development of awareness concerning the relationships between the actors in various governance networks so that it can be possible to bring about the achievement of greater transparency in the processes that are undertaken.

The term governance network implies that there is a convergence when it comes to a diversity of issues concerning government and the manner through which it is operated. It is necessary to consider that this convergence is one that has taken place in order to meet the needs of society while at the same time promoting a situation where there is the achievement of common goals in as efficient a manner as possible (Lecy, Mergel, & Schmitz, 2014). While there has been considerable debate concerning what exactly governance networks mean, it is pertinent to consider that it is a reality in the contemporary world and has to be understood as such. A body of knowledge and concepts concerning governance networks has grown over the years and this has led to the establishment of means through which an understanding of the term can be understood. One of the most important factors concerning governance networks is that is involves a situation where service delivery and policy are developed and implemented through networks that involve actors that are essentially interdependent. The interdependency between the various actors can be considered to be an essential aspect of promoting the development of the networks that are involved in service delivery (Bryson, Crosby, & Stone, 2015). It is also necessary to stress that it is the actors who make choices concerning the strategies that they have to use in order to find and make solutions to various problems. There are also instances where there is a complexity of interactions and negotiating partners that come about because of the interdependencies that occur between actors (Skelcher & Smith, 2015). Therefore, the different governance networks tend to be quite diverse in their make up because each of them is developed to satisfy a large number of unique needs (Van den Hurk & Verhoest, 2015). The variety of perceptions and strategies that they have to implement requires that there is the achievement of unique problem solving, service delivery and policy implementation initiatives at all times to ensure efficiency.

In conclusion, the governance network approach is one that stresses the need to consider the outcomes of the implementation of different policies and service delivery. A consideration of the outcomes ensures that there are initiatives aimed at promoting the development of the most pertinent policies possible while at the same time including the most qualified actors to undertake the diverse tasks involved in bringing about the achievement of results. The development of an understanding of needs is critical for the creation of institutionalization of the relationships that come about between the different actors. These create patterns that are necessary for the promotion of effective working relationships between actors that make it possible to bring about strong service delivery initiatives. The relationships involved are those that ensure that there is the establishment of social networks that are necessary for not only bringing about better service delivery, but also ensures that there is the establishment of a basis upon which the various actors can work together in other networks. Finally, the relationships between the various actors ensures that there is the emergence of rules that promote the regulation of the behaviour within networks; making it possible for actors to explore new content that might enhance their efficiency while at the same time helping in enhancing the quality of services being delivered.

References

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Bovaird, T., Stoker, G., Jones, T., Loeffler, E., & Pinilla Roncancio, M. (2016). Activating collective co-production of public services: influencing citizens to participate in complex governance mechanisms in the UK. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 82(1), 47-68.

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