Immigration Laws and Their Effect on the Economy of California

 

Immigration laws in the United States have been in place since the founding of the nation and these have been changed to suit the various circumstances that it has faced. One of the most significant issues in the contemporary world, immigration has received both support and opposition from various sections of American society. Immigration policies, especially within the Trump administration have become such a controversial issue that it has the potential of affecting various parts of the country, especially the economy. One of the states that is likely to experience some economic effects if the Trump administration’s immigration laws and rules are implemented to their fullest is California. In this paper, there will be a discussion of the impact that immigrants have in the local economy, how they affect taxation, and the potential effects of the Trump administration immigration policies on California’s economy.

Studies have shown that the state of California is one of the biggest beneficiaries of immigration in the country. This is because a considerable number of immigrants, especially undocumented ones, have settled in the state. These individuals take on those jobs that many locals would not take and this ensures that some sectors continue running.[1] In addition, because they demand lesser pay than their American counterparts, they act as a fuel for the local economy because employers have more money at hand to ensure that they make investments that not only expand their businesses, but also create jobs. Business expansion makes it possible for employers to create jobs that Americans are able to take; showing that immigration does not have to be seen in a negative light since it plays a role in creating local employment. Most immigrants are also consumers, meaning that they make purchases of what they need while at the same time promoting the local economy because of their expenditures.

Moreover, they are also important contributors to the government revenues at all levels, including the local, state, and federal levels.[2] This is an extremely important factor because one of the major points that are made against immigration is that the government tends to spend more on these individuals than on the average American. However, a study conducted by the Trump administration, which was later rejected because of significant pressure from the White House, shows the considerable benefits that refugees and immigrants have on the economy.[3] The study shows that despite the considerable government expenditure that the government commits towards these individuals, the latter brings in billions more in revenues. A result is that a decision to curb immigration would have a negative effect not only on the economy, but also on government revenues. Rather than creating jobs for Americans, it has the potential of leading to a situation where those jobs that Americans do not want to undertake would be left undone; creating a negative economic impact on the nation.

The development of immigration policy in the United States is often driven by interest groups. This is especially the case considering that these groups often lobby in Congress to ensure that laws favoring their positions are adopted. Among the most influential interest groups in the country are unions, which have essentially driven the narrative of the need to take a hard line when it comes to immigration.[4] These unions have done so because of the belief that immigrants take on jobs that rightfully belong to Americans and that there is need to impose lower caps on the number of immigrants allowed into the country. Another interest group that is influential in the formulation of immigration policy is made up of businesses, which benefit the most from immigrant workers.[5] These promote the idea that it is essential for immigration levels to be increased for the sake of the economy. However, in the current administration, it seems that unions have an upper hand when it comes to promoting the development of immigration policies.

In conclusion, the discussion above has sought to bring about an understanding of the benefits of immigration to the United States through an analysis of the impact that immigrants have in the local economy, how they affect taxation, and the potential effects of the Trump administration immigration policies on California’s economy. It has shown that immigrants are an integral part of the economy, and despite their status, they are important in helping in the advancement of the nation. Immigrants are also important because they not only spend their income in the country, but also pay taxes that increase government revenues.

---

[1] Jeffrey S Passel and D Cohn, "Size of Us Unauthorized Immigrant Workforce Stable after the Great Recession," Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends  (2016): 8.

[2] Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Somini Sengupta, "Trump Administration Rejects Study Showing Positive Impact of Refugees," The New York Times  (2017).

[3] Ibid.

[4] Giovanni Facchini, Anna Maria Mayda, and Prachi Mishra, "Do Interest Groups Affect Us Immigration Policy?," Journal of International Economics 85, no. 1 (2011): 118.

[5] Jens Hainmueller and Daniel J Hopkins, "The Hidden American Immigration Consensus: A Conjoint Analysis of Attitudes toward Immigrants," American Journal of Political Science 59, no. 3 (2015): 531.

Capital Punishment

 

Capital punishment has been practiced in the world’s legal systems since the ancient world and even though it has of the most part been abolished in the country, it is still practiced in many countries all over the world. Capital punishment is considered to be among the worst punishments that an individual can be handed by the justice system. It is handed down to individuals that have committed such serious crimes as murder and treason.

A consequence is that it has long been considered a means through which to ensure that individuals in society are dissuaded from committing serious crimes. Furthermore, it is considered to be an act of justice because it allows for a level of retribution, where the families of those who lost a loved one end up receiving a level of closure following the sentencing of a perpetrator of murder to death. Therefore, capital punishment is considered as an essential means of making sure that there is the advancement of law and order as well as justice in society. It is a measure that can be used for the sake of ensuring the creation of an environment where individuals are discouraged from committing crimes that put public safety at risk and going against the established social norms. Capital punishment has only been abolished within the past few years, but during this time, there has been a considerable increase in the level of serious crimes in society.

Capital punishment should be reintroduced because it is a means through which to ensure that individuals who commit serious crimes are held accountable for their actions. This is an extremely important reason because this form of punishment will help in promoting a situation where individuals are discouraged from undertaking actions that might lead to serious consequences. In an age where terrorism has become a menace to society, it is essential to ensure that there is a punishment that is sufficient for those individuals who deem to attack innocent members of society. Under such circumstances, a return of the death penalty will go a long way towards making sure that terrorists are given the punishment that they deserve. Such individuals should not be allowed to remain within society because even in situations where they are given life sentences, they have the potential of radicalizing other prisoners that they meet in prison. In such a situation, the menace that is terrorism will not be easily destroyed, and will continue to increase to such an extent that it becomes impossible to bring perpetrators under control. However, with the return of capital punishment, it will be possible to get rid of dangerous elements of society once and for all, and this will not only bring about a level of justice for those who were victims, but will also allow for the considerable reduction of crime in society.

In conclusion, it is important that the utmost consideration is put in place in a situation where capital punishment is returned. This is especially considering that the original reason for the removal of capital punishment was that it was not only an inhumane form of punishment, but it also involved some innocent individuals being unjustly sentenced to death. However, capital punishment is still needed in the contemporary world to ensure that there is the development of means to combat the new criminal challenges of the contemporary world. Such crimes as terrorism cannot be effectively dealt with without the use of severe punishment, and only capital punishment can rid society of such elements once and for all.

The Philosophy of Free Will

One of the biggest philosophical problems concerning free will is the attempt to create a level of reconciliation between freedom and the determinism that seeks to promote the idea of cause and effect. This is especially the case considering that the latter promotes the idea that the events that take place in the world are all a part of a great causal chain that cannot be broken. Determinists believe that there is no such freedom and that instead; all events that take place in the world are predetermined by nature or a divine presence. Compatibilists, on the other hand, define freedom as being influenced not only by previous events, but also by the free will of individuals which also have an influence on the actions that they are likely to take in their own lives. As a result, compatibilists are of the opinion that determinism through the will of individuals ensures that they are able to take moral responsibility for their actions. Additionally, the libertarian perspective is one that states that the will of individuals is free as long as it is not determined by previous events; allowing for alternative choices to be made despite the presence of the same pre-existing conditions. In this paper, there will be an attempt to understand free will through the ideas of Pereboom and Smilansky because they both seek to bring about concepts that go against the traditional concepts of libertarianism, and compatibility.

One of the most prominent aspects of Smilansky’s concept of freedom is that he seems to go against determinism by proposing that individuals in society, such as criminals, have to undergo a lot of suffering for actions that were beyond their control (Smilansky 492). This is a highly significant observation because it is a direct challenge against the concept of determinism that proposes that all events that take place have been pre-determined. Smilansky seems to propose that incompatibilists such as Pereboom tend to dismiss the aspects of life that are beyond the control of human beings and instead focus mainly on their own actions. Therefore, there is the proposal that those actions that individuals take that go against the norms of their societies should not be treated with the harsh punishments that they end up receiving. This is because the actions that these individuals take are often predetermined by past events. The suffering that they have to undergo as a result of the punishments that they receive is unjust since they do not allow for an understanding of events being out of their control. There should be a deep appreciation of situations outside the control of individuals to ensure that there are less punitive attitudes in society that can in turn significantly reduce the toll that is often taken by the legal systems that have been set up to establish order. Thus, since actions are ultimately out of the control of individuals as a result of past events, it is important to make sure that individual actions are treated with the same justification; allowing for an understanding of the manner through which conditions outside their control can affect the lives of individuals.

Smilansky further states that the compatibilist appreciation for persons is extremely shallow because it does not consider the individual independently of the factors beyond their control (Smilansky 492). As a consequence, the actions of individuals that are appreciated from a compatibilist point of view is not based on their achievements, but on luck; meaning that the individual himself is inconsequential. Without the appreciation of the individual, the concept of free will comes into question because the individual seems to have no choice but to follow the path that has been determined for him by past events. Without free will and the appreciation for the individual, the compatibilist perspective, according to Smilansky, is one that fails to appreciate the manner through which society ends up promoting such vices as injustice and arbitrariness. In a direct challenge to the compatibilist perspective, Smilansky promotes the ideas propagated by the neo-compatibilist appreciation for individuals (Smilansky 496). He considers this appreciation not to be shallow and instead, it is a means through which there can be an acceptance that the capacity to understand the actions of individuals is not possible. This capacity does not exist and instead, individuals in society are not able to make sure that they determine their own future; meaning that the concept of the free will is a fiction and should not be taken at face value. It is morally outrageous to base the motivations of the actions of individuals on the aspects concerning their natures that are predetermined and instead, it is essential that there should be an appreciation that these aspects do not exist. As a consequence, the various characteristics that are displayed by individuals are self-originated; meaning that it is essential for the actions that these individuals take be determined from the perspective of these individuals rather than as some pre-determined event. This is an opinion that is corroborated by Pereboom, who points out that knowing that the actions of individuals are ultimately pre-determined does not necessarily mean that their moral responsibilities are erased (Pereboom 478). On the contrary, the ability of individuals to make decisions concerning their own lives and actions have to be appreciated, even though this notion might go against the traditional concepts of the predetermination of events.

Pereboom, in support of the concept of incompatibility, proposes that determinism is true of the whole world and that no agent that exists possesses any free will (Pereboom 479). This is especially the case considering that all of the actions that individuals take have been predetermined and that despite their best efforts, it is likely that their destinies have already been set. However, there are instances where individuals have the ability to exercise their free will because despite their actions being predetermined, individuals have a certain capacity aimed at bringing about an understanding of the consequences of their actions and making a decision concerning the best way to approach these actions. While this may be the case, individuals do not have absolute free will and there are cases where their actions end up being determined by the conditions taking place in their environment in such a way that shows that they are not masters of their own destinies and that there are some aspects of their lives that are not absolutely under their control. Therefore, free will seems to be incompatible with determinism because the latter is a concept that is based on the belief on the absolute lack of control of individuals over their lives, while free will is one that promotes the idea that individuals have complete control over their own destinies. Free will has no place in a concept that seeks to promote the idea that all agents in the world have no will of their own and are instead controlled by those aspects of nature that predetermine events and their outcomes. As a result, the belief in the free will of individuals is based on the falsity of determinism because it is the only way through which there can be acceptance that agents have free will and that they can control their own destinies without any interference from outside forces. On the other hand, determinism is based on the absolute denial of free will because the latter goes against all of its principles which consider outside forces to be of greater importance in influencing events that take place.

Free will can be considered to be an illusion that is propagated by members of society in order to make sure that there is the achievement of a certain agenda. This is especially the case considering that the ideas concerning free will have been especially prominent in the contemporary world to such an extent that the richest states are increasingly promoting ideas concerning it to other countries in the globe. However, the main purpose of propagating this idea is not because of any significant concern about the welfare of their fellow human beings, but instead, it has been based on the need to promote a globalized western culture that can enhance the latter’s economic strength. Free will is an illusion because individuals in society tend to be significantly restrained by laws that ensure that they are compliant with whatever authority is in power at a given time. The advancement of this concept is, therefore, not straightforward because there is a failure to recognize that the ability of individuals to determine their own fate is highly limited. Other factors of nature as well as the society around them have a more significant influence on the lives of individuals because these forces are vastly superior to human beings and what they represent. Therefore, the idea of free will, which is built on the assumption that individuals have a choice when it comes to some of their actions, is not realistic because it does not put into consideration the aspects of nature that are more powerful in determining the fate of individuals that the choices that they make. All the choices that are made by individuals tend to be highly influenced by their environment to such an extent that it is only after an assessment of their relationship to the latter that they are able to make a decision concerning the next step that they should take towards bringing about the achievement of their desired results. The illusion of free will is, consequentially, a means through which individuals in society are able to feel secure rather than a tangible reality.

Dispelling the illusion of free will would have the effect of bringing about an end to society as it currently is because it would bring to the fore the reality that individuals are not necessarily in control of their destinies. Instead, a situation would develop where it is nearly impossible for individuals to live in a secure way since they would not feel like they were in control of their futures. Being at the mercy of external forces in the ancient world was one of the reasons behind the human creation of religion as a means of explaining the occurrences taking place in the natural environment that also had a direct effect on them. The result was that it provided with relief even in situations where they came to attribute their lives and these occurrences to divine beings. However, as they came to feel secure in their communities and in a sedentary life, the fear of the natural environment seems to have waned; to be replaced with the belief that they could determine their own destinies. This belief has remained prevalent to the contemporary world among a majority of the global population to such an extent that to reveal that free will is only an illusion would possibly bring about an end to society as it is currently. The result would be that society would end up reacting in a way that seeks to promote the continued illusion of free will in order to prevent itself from disintegrating. Accepting the truth concerning the lack of free will would be extremely difficult especially considering that this concept has been the mainstay of society for a long time and has brought about a situation where individuals feel secure in their environment as well as their long-held beliefs concerning the realities of their lives. Thus, the denial of free will would bring in a situation where the belief in naturalism becomes prevalent because it promotes the belief that all events that take place in the world are beyond human control and that they take place because they have been preset in order to make sure that a certain purpose is fulfilled.

Because naturalism denies that individuals have free will, the ideas that it propagates tend to be nearly completely ignored since this information could prove to be too dangerous. To find out that free will is an illusion has the potential of bringing about an end to the moral standards and norms that have guided society for many years and could instead lead to a situation where it is difficult for individuals to remain loyal to the current social order. The disillusionment with the concept of free will could end up significantly altering the social landscape and could lead to chaos as individuals seek to promote their self-interest at all costs. The rules that have helped govern society would end up being disregarded because individuals would come to the realization that they are of no use since their destinies have already been predetermined by forces greater than themselves. The reality of the illusion of free will is probably only recognized by a few individuals in society and these find it necessary to keep it from the rest because such a revelation would bring about an end to order and let in anarchy. The vast majority have to be misled so that they do not come to contest the very aspects of society that hold them together and instead give in to their baser instincts. The self-confidence and belief in their own superiority that has held human society together for thousands of years could be brought to an end if free will were revealed to be an illusion; meaning that the continued denial of the truth would be essential for the continued survival of society.

Finding out that there is no free will could, therefore, be considered to be the end of society because individuals would likely end up being more individualistic in their perception of the world. This is especially considering that incompatibilists believe that free will is incompatible with determinism; meaning that there are forces that are greater than individuals which determine the course of their lives. Such concepts as moral responsibility could come to an end because individuals would come to the realization that the need not follow moral codes since to do so would be useless. The knowledge that actions are predetermined by past events rather than the decisions that are made by individuals in the contemporary world has the potential of leading to a change in behavior in such a way that the zeal to live and the joys that are derived from it would come to an end. Instead, the actions associated with everyday life could be brought to an end in such a way that there is little motivation among individuals to make sure that they seek to improve their lives for the better.

In conclusion, the discussion above has sought to develop an understanding of free will through the ideas of Pereboom and Smilansky because they both seek to bring about concepts that go against the traditional concepts of libertarianism, and compatibility. It has shown Smilansky’s opinion that the compatibilist appreciation for persons is extremely shallow because it does not consider the individual independently of the factors beyond their control. Additionally, Pereboom, in support of the concept of incompatibility, proposes that determinism is true of the whole world and that no agent that exists possesses any free will. Therefore, both of these authors feel that the concept of free will is an illusion since it does no factor in the belief that there are forces which predetermine the destinies of all the agents in the world.

Works Cited

Pereboom, Derk. Living Without Free Will. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Smilansky, Saul. Free Will, Fundamental Dualism, and the Centrality of Illusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Khashoggi: Bots feed Saudi support after disappearance By Chris Bell and Alistair Coleman

Suspected bot accounts are attempting to shape the social media narrative following the disappearance of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi.

Arabic hashtags expressing support for de facto Saudi leader Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, condemning news organisation Al Jazeera and urging users to "unfollow enemies of the nation" were among those amplified by the involvement of bot networks alongside genuine users.

Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts.

Mr Khashoggi is missing, presumed dead, after he was seen entering the Saudi consulate in Istanbul on 2 October.

Turkish officials allege the journalist, who had been critical of the Saudi regime, was killed there.

On 14 October, the Arabic hashtag translating as "we all have trust in Mohammed Bin Salman" was among the top global trends, featuring in 250,000 tweets. Additionally, "We have to stand by our leader" was used more than 60,000 times.

On Wednesday, a hashtag translating as "unfollow enemies of the nation" was also highly used, while in the past 24 hours the term "campaign to close Al Jazeera, the channel of deception" has gained traction, used close to 100,000 times on the social network.

Bot networks were used by both sides in an effort to control the conversation on social media during the crisis.

Ben Nimmo, Information Defence Fellow at the Atlantic Council, analysed one of the Arabic-language hashtags with bot involvement.

"Unfollow enemies of the nation" was used in excess of 100,000 times. The vast majority of that came through retweets, which can be a signal of bot activity.

Accounts which had been dormant for a long time were suddenly tweeting again, posting identical or near-identical material to other suspicious accounts.

Others were newly-created or exhibited other characteristics typical of bot accounts.

Attempts to control and manipulate social media conversations have become an increasingly prominent global issue.

On Wednesday, Twitter published more than 10 million tweets from suspected state-backed Russian and Iranian "troll farms".

While US national security chiefs have warned of "a pervasive messaging campaign by Russia to weaken and divide the US".

The New World: How it is perceived

Colin Calloway’s approach to the concept of the new world is one which differs from traditional views. This is mainly because, instead of focusing mainly on the European context, he creates a balanced focus on the manner through which Native Americans and European settlers were able to interact and create a vibrant new culture. For the most part, traditional conceptions of the new world tend to attribute the establishment of history as well as organized society to European settlers and often disregards the Native Americans as being individuals who lacked history because none of their histories was written, but instead transmitted orally. As a result, the history of the new world has come to be recorded from the time of European settlement and the contribution of the Native Americans to the development of the new society have been totally forgotten because of the Eurocentric view of them as being savages. However, Calloway is able to bring together the histories of both European settlers and Native Americans in such a way that promotes the idea of their having interacted and each having affected the lives of the other. The American culture, according to Calloway, did not just come up as a result of European settlement, and instead, it came about because both Europeans and Native Americans made their contributions to it; bringing about a unique culture that has become dominant in the whole country. Thus, Calloway considers Native Americans to have been advanced enough both socially and culturally to have an influence on the Europeans who ended up settling amongst them; in contrast to the traditional meaning of the new world.

One of the most significant aspects of the interactions between European settlers and Native Americans, covered by Calloway, is that it led to the spread of diseases that were prevalent in Europe into Native American populations. The spread of these diseases was not done intentionally, but instead, it came about as a result of the interaction between a small number of Native Americans and settlers, mainly through trade (Calloway, 2013, p.50). These diseases were most prevalent in trade routes and this is the main reason why the first people to get infected were often the Native Americans who lived close to these routes or in whose settlements Europeans travelled through. These individuals would in turn, as a result of other Native Americans further into the interior, end up infecting the latter; thus resulting in massive deaths from diseases which traditional Native medicine could not cure. The large number of Native Americans throughout the Americas who ended up dying did not do so because of direct interactions with European settlers, because a majority of them had not set eyes on a European before (Calloway, 2013, p.50). Instead, the diseases spread because of interactions between those Native Americans who had interacted with Europeans, and those who had not. The depopulation of some areas which came about as a result can be considered to be based, not on malice on the part of European settlers, but on the ignorance between the latter and the Native Americans concerning the dangers of European diseases. In this way, Calloway seems to blame disease, rather than the violent interactions between Europeans and Native Americans in the form of wars that would come up in later years, as the case of the loss of large populations of Native Americans.

According to Calloway, the peaceful interactions that took place between the Native Americans and European settlers tended to be based on the self-interest of the latter. This is because in their settlement of a new land, of which they were unfamiliar, they needed the Native Americans more than the Native Americans needed them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). Europeans considered Native Americans to be potential trade partners, and they actively sought to establish trade links aimed at bringing the latter into the economic system that had been established by the Europeans. Furthermore, European missionaries were eager to convert Native Americans to Christianity and these often sought to ensure that this objective was accomplished by going directly to their villages and ministering to them (Calloway, 2013, p.53). The result was that there was a significant growth of contact between these populations to such an extent that they were able to achieve a high level of cultural exchange. Thus, while some Europeans went to settle among the Native Americans, and even adopted some of their customs, some of the latter also chose to discard their own lifestyles and settle among Europeans. In this way, such scenarios as Europeans having tattooed their faces like Native Americans and Native Americans drinking tea became quite common. The creation of a hybrid society which involved the adoption of elements of both European and Native American cultures took place. Through the analysis that he makes concerning the interactions between Native Americans and Europeans, Calloway ensures that he disputes the prevalent narrative about the often hostile interactions between the settlers and the natives, and instead brings out a more positive outlook of these interactions.

Jill Lapore explores the concept of literacy and the means of transmitting history in the context of the new world. She states that the history of Native Americans has been for the most part disregarded because they did not maintain written records (Lapore, 1994). This disregard began to take place during the early European settlement of the Americas and has continued to the twenty first century where written records are considered to be the means through which history can be recorded. However, the disregard of Native American history does not take into account the fact that unlike European history, which was written down, Native American history, was kept through oral tradition. These oral traditions have instead come to be regarded as myths because there are no contemporary written records to verify their authenticity. Lapore points out that in the seventeenth century, there were a significant number of literate Native Americans who lived in European settlements and who could have written the oral histories of their people (Lapore, 1994). However, not record is made of any attempt having been made to put down these histories. Lapore suggests that the main reason behind this lack of written history of the Native Americans is that in order to achieve literacy, Native Americans were required to completely discard the traditions of their own people and instead adopt the Europeans lifestyle. This meant having to adopt Christianity, speak English, and live in European settlements. The result was that many of these individuals ended up losing touch with their own people; instead living at the periphery of Native Americans and Europeans since they were no longer fully accepted by either (Lapore, 1994). These individuals could therefore not write down the oral histories of their people for fear of being rejected by the Europeans whose culture they had adopted.

Another aspect of Native American and European interaction is discussed by William Cronon who considers this interaction from the European standpoint. For most Europeans who settled in the new world, the vastness of the land and its wilderness was incomprehensible because in Europe most of the land had been utilized and the wilderness that remained was in private hands (Cronon, 2003, p.33). When they considered the Native Americans and the simple life that they led surrounded by such abundance, they came to believe that the Native Americans were lazy. Furthermore, this concept of laziness was further enhanced because it was the women, rather than the men in Native American communities who farmed while the men hunted. In Europe, it was the men’s task to farm the land; enforcing the belief that Native American men were lazy. Cronon points out that these perceptions by Europeans were wrong because Native American societies were organized differently. Native Americans often sought to use the land according to their own needs rather than using it abundantly in order to create a surplus, the way the Europeans did (Cronon, 2003, p.122). Additionally, they often sought to make sure that they utilized what they had effectively, especially in winter months when, in situations where there was impending scarcity, these people tended to choose to go hungry in order to utilize the remaining food for as long as possible. These were customs that Europeans failed to understand and would make them enforce their dominance in society in a bid to promote their own way of life, which they thought was superior.

The common perceptions concerning American history, especially its origins, should be changed. This is because despite eventual European dominance over America, American history was not made up only by the European settlers. Instead, Native Americans also made significant contributions while they too were influenced by European culture. American history can be considered as an amalgamation of these two distinct cultures, which brought about a new culture that was adapted to a new environment as a result of interactions between Native Americans and Europeans. A full understanding of American history cannot be achieved without the inclusion of the peaceful interactions that took place between Native Americans and Europeans, because the contributions of the former is one of the main factors that brought about the success of settlements, which in turn brought about American history.

References

Calloway, C.G. (2013). New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America. Boston: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cronon, W. (2003). Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang, 2003.

Lapore, J. (1994). Dead Men Tell No Tales: John Sassamon and the Fatal Consequences of Literacy. American Quarterly, 46(4): 497 – 512.

The Cuban Revolution and Gender

A happy Cuban woman

         The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the new man and woman in the workplace. This has allowed people to become aware that they need to treat each other well. Moreover, it has enabled all workers to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled in the workplace is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing; it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure.

       The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women in the place of work. This is because it has ensured that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is no task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and all this is due to the revolution.

The real Cuba

           The most desirable society that can be created in Cuba is one where all people within it are equal, with nobody being either above or beneath the other. Moreover, there should be gender balance in government so that it is no longer just dominated by men. In addition, a society which is just should be created, where everybody is allowed to do what they want so long as what they do does not destroy the aims of the revolution. However, the creation of such a society cannot be achieved unless several threats are dealt with swiftly. One of these is the beginning of a highly paternalistic culture in the society, where one cannot go ahead in life unless he or she is sponsored by somebody powerful in society. The second threat is the temptation to slowly introduce capitalistic features into the country in order to conform to the world economy. This is extremely dangerous because so far, the revolution has been a success and it can, therefore, not be merged with corrupting elements.

More of the real Cuba

           The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba. It has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. This state is, therefore, also the biggest threat to the achievement of life which the new order would bring to the people of Cuba. There is a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have. This, of course, is American propaganda, because there is a larger percentage of people with low standards of living in that country than in Cuba. It is exceedingly urgent for the government and people of Cuba to be wary of such temptations because to submit to them would make all the sacrifices made for the revolution to be useless.

Governance Networks

Within the last decades of the twentieth century, the concept of governance developed within political studies and the fields related to it. This concept is one that seeks to promote the idea that there is a wide variety of approaches that are required to make sure that there is an understanding of the world and the changing nature of the role of the state within the international system. Furthermore, there is the rise of the belief that governance can be used to promote the idea that the contemporary world is where individuals live in a world where there are a diversity of coexisting networks that are aimed at safeguarding the lives of individuals as well as society in general (Bush, Oosterveer, Bailey, & Mol, 2015). These networks have developed in such a way that ensures that there is the creation of a better understanding of the massive urbanization, globalization, and a diversity of other societal demands that have come about because of the considerable participation of the civil society in everyday life (Fung, 2015). This new knowledge is essential in bringing about an understanding of the way that the world is developing because it allows for the inclusion of the manner that new concepts such as the participation of the civic society has been able to establish a strong public voice in decision making. In this paper, there will be a discussion and analysis of the concept of the governance network and the manner through which it has been able to affect the world.

One of the most significant aspects of the governance network is that it has led to the argument that societies are increasingly becoming fragmented. This is mainly because of the belief that the new demands that are being made on governments has led them towards a shift from the more traditional bureaucratic order to one that is more responsive to the demands of society (Wiesel & Modell, 2014). Such interactive governments have the potential of leading towards the fragmentation of society because it involves a process where there is greater devolution of power in such a way that promotes the achievement of more efficiency when it comes to service delivery. Governance networks have also become critical when it comes to policymaking because the individuals involved in the latter tend to consult with the diverse stakeholders in society before any decisions are made (Bovaird, Stoker, Jones, Loeffler, & Pinilla Roncancio, 2016). The arbitrary decision making processes that was an essential aspect of the bureaucratic forms of government are increasingly being abandoned in favour of more open ones where there is need to seek to achieve the approval of stakeholders before policies are implemented (Denis, Ferlie, & Van Gestel, 2015; Greve, 2015). Furthermore, there has also been an increasing role of the private sector in those aspects of government that were previously the strict domain of the public sector (O'Toole, 2015). Thus, governance networks have become essential means through which to bring about a form of governmental devolution that seeks to enhance service delivery in the most efficient way possible while at the same time reducing the role of government in the process. It has also ensured that the role of government in society has essentially become blurred because the institutions involved in service delivery have their roles increasingly being taken by more specialized entities from the private sector.

The latter collaborative arrangements have made it possible for governments to undertake their tasks in a manner that is more supervisory than active. Governance networks have ensured that there is an increase in the proliferation of governance arrangements either with the private sector or other governments with the aim of bringing about a more efficient achievement of goals (Page, Stone, Bryson, & Crosby, 2015). This is especially the case considering that there are some governance networks which have developed between a local government, other governments, as well as the private sector with the aim of seeking to achieve the best possible results when it comes to undertaking their functions. These new collaborations have essentially made it possible for governance networks to become more common in the contemporary world to such an extent that they have become the norm. It is currently normal for individuals to expect that network arrangements will bring them the services that they need without a complete reliance on their governments to provide the services (Vangen, Hayes, & Cornforth, 2015). Governments have ended up becoming facilitators and guarantors rather than the actual providers of services; meaning that there has developed a necessity that there is the establishment of newer networks to increase efficiency. It has also become possible for a new layer of governance to appear within local governments, with these layers playing a significant role when it comes to the development of strong initiatives aimed at enhancing efficiency while at the same time reducing the role of government (Kapucu, Hu, & Khosa, 2017). The various stakeholders in society have also come to have a say in the management of their own governments and how services are delivered. However, despite this being the case, it is essential to approach governance networks with caution because despite their being widespread, they have not been as widely adopted as expected.

Governance networks have brought about a greater understanding of the role that networks can play in enhancing the role of governments. This is because it involves an understanding of the manner through which the complexity of the multi-governmental landscape has become a necessity in the contemporary world (De Vries, Bekkers, & Tummers, 2016). It is necessary to consider that governance networks have essentially made it possible for there to be the creation of means through which to bring about the interaction between a diversity of actors in society in such a way that promotes the interests of all involved because there is devolution of functions (Borg, Toikka, & Primmer, 2015). Furthermore, it has become possible for these actors to come to terms with each other’s capabilities in such a way that helps to bring about the achievement of means through which to promote the diversification of functions towards the achievement of common goals. Thus, it can be argued that politicians and administrators have become the main actors when it comes to the promotion of societal interests and this has been in such a way that they have come to be seen as the guarantors of public services (Bryson, Crosby, & Bloomberg, 2014; Head & Alford, 2015). However, despite the achievement of this objective, it has become essential to consider that these individuals have gained considerable power over a diversity of functions. This is especially the case considering that these individuals might end up abusing their power to ensure that they serve the interests of their respective organizations or lobbies that sponsored them towards attaining their positions (Howlett & Ramesh, 2016). Therefore, there should be a process where there is the development of awareness concerning the relationships between the actors in various governance networks so that it can be possible to bring about the achievement of greater transparency in the processes that are undertaken.

The term governance network implies that there is a convergence when it comes to a diversity of issues concerning government and the manner through which it is operated. It is necessary to consider that this convergence is one that has taken place in order to meet the needs of society while at the same time promoting a situation where there is the achievement of common goals in as efficient a manner as possible (Lecy, Mergel, & Schmitz, 2014). While there has been considerable debate concerning what exactly governance networks mean, it is pertinent to consider that it is a reality in the contemporary world and has to be understood as such. A body of knowledge and concepts concerning governance networks has grown over the years and this has led to the establishment of means through which an understanding of the term can be understood. One of the most important factors concerning governance networks is that is involves a situation where service delivery and policy are developed and implemented through networks that involve actors that are essentially interdependent. The interdependency between the various actors can be considered to be an essential aspect of promoting the development of the networks that are involved in service delivery (Bryson, Crosby, & Stone, 2015). It is also necessary to stress that it is the actors who make choices concerning the strategies that they have to use in order to find and make solutions to various problems. There are also instances where there is a complexity of interactions and negotiating partners that come about because of the interdependencies that occur between actors (Skelcher & Smith, 2015). Therefore, the different governance networks tend to be quite diverse in their make up because each of them is developed to satisfy a large number of unique needs (Van den Hurk & Verhoest, 2015). The variety of perceptions and strategies that they have to implement requires that there is the achievement of unique problem solving, service delivery and policy implementation initiatives at all times to ensure efficiency.

In conclusion, the governance network approach is one that stresses the need to consider the outcomes of the implementation of different policies and service delivery. A consideration of the outcomes ensures that there are initiatives aimed at promoting the development of the most pertinent policies possible while at the same time including the most qualified actors to undertake the diverse tasks involved in bringing about the achievement of results. The development of an understanding of needs is critical for the creation of institutionalization of the relationships that come about between the different actors. These create patterns that are necessary for the promotion of effective working relationships between actors that make it possible to bring about strong service delivery initiatives. The relationships involved are those that ensure that there is the establishment of social networks that are necessary for not only bringing about better service delivery, but also ensures that there is the establishment of a basis upon which the various actors can work together in other networks. Finally, the relationships between the various actors ensures that there is the emergence of rules that promote the regulation of the behaviour within networks; making it possible for actors to explore new content that might enhance their efficiency while at the same time helping in enhancing the quality of services being delivered.

References

Borg, R., Toikka, A., & Primmer, E. (2015). Social capital and governance: a social network analysis of forest biodiversity collaboration in Central Finland. Forest Policy and Economics, 50, 90-97.

Bovaird, T., Stoker, G., Jones, T., Loeffler, E., & Pinilla Roncancio, M. (2016). Activating collective co-production of public services: influencing citizens to participate in complex governance mechanisms in the UK. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 82(1), 47-68.

Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C., & Bloomberg, L. (2014). Public value governance: Moving beyond traditional public administration and the new public management. Public administration review, 74(4), 445-456.

Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C., & Stone, M. M. (2015). Designing and implementing cross‐sector collaborations: Needed and challenging. Public administration review, 75(5), 647-663.

Bush, S. R., Oosterveer, P., Bailey, M., & Mol, A. P. (2015). Sustainability governance of chains and networks: a review and future outlook. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107, 8-19.

De Vries, H., Bekkers, V., & Tummers, L. (2016). Innovation in the public sector: A systematic review and future research agenda. Public Administration, 94(1), 146-166.

Denis, J. L., Ferlie, E., & Van Gestel, N. (2015). Understanding hybridity in public organizations. Public Administration, 93(2), 273-289.

Fung, A. (2015). Putting the public back into governance: The challenges of citizen participation and its future. Public administration review, 75(4), 513-522.

Greve, C. (2015). Ideas in public management reform for the 2010s. Digitalization, value creation and involvement. Public Organization Review, 15(1), 49-65.

Head, B. W., & Alford, J. (2015). Wicked problems: Implications for public policy and management. Administration & Society, 47(6), 711-739.

Howlett, M., & Ramesh, M. (2016). Achilles' heels of governance: Critical capacity deficits and their role in governance failures. Regulation & Governance, 10(4), 301-313.

Kapucu, N., Hu, Q., & Khosa, S. (2017). The state of network research in public administration. Administration & Society, 49(8), 1087-1120.

Lecy, J. D., Mergel, I. A., & Schmitz, H. P. (2014). Networks in public administration: current scholarship in review. Public Management Review, 16(5), 643-665.

O'Toole, L. J. (2015). Networks and networking: The public administrative agendas. Public administration review, 75(3), 361-371.

Page, S. B., Stone, M. M., Bryson, J. M., & Crosby, B. C. (2015). Public Value Creation by Cross‐Sector Collaborations: A Framework and Challenges of Assessment. Public Administration, 93(3), 715-732.

Skelcher, C., & Smith, S. R. (2015). Theorizing hybridity: Institutional logics, complex organizations, and actor identities: The case of nonprofits. Public Administration, 93(2), 433-448.

Van den Hurk, M., & Verhoest, K. (2015). The governance of public–private partnerships in sports infrastructure: Interfering complexities in Belgium. International Journal of Project Management, 33(1), 201-211.

Vangen, S., Hayes, J. P., & Cornforth, C. (2015). Governing cross-sector, inter-organizational collaborations. Public Management Review, 17(9), 1237-1260.

Wiesel, F., & Modell, S. (2014). From new public management to new public governance? Hybridization and implications for public sector consumerism. Financial Accountability & Management, 30(2), 175-205.

Eddie Mabo

Eddie Mabo was an Australian man who played a crucial role in the recognition of the right of the indigenous people to own the land in the country. He was born in the Torres Strait Islands in 1936 and it was one of his fundamental beliefs that the land upon which he was born belonged to him and his people. An indigenous Australian, he displayed an astute knowledge of the fact that the land upon which he was born was rightfully indigenous, and that the laws that had been instituted by the colonial settlers and their government did the indigenous people a great injustice. For almost a decade, this man fought for the rights of his people by taking a case to court with the intention of having it overturn the terra nullius land system in Australia which alienated the indigenous people from their land. The sheer determination of this man, against all odds, ensured that he had one of the greatest wins in Australian history for an indigenous person, because the ruling made, overturning the terra nullius system, ensured that over three hundred years of injustice had almost come to an end. The overturning of this system further granted the indigenous people the confidence of identifying themselves with the land of their ancestors and ensured that their right to it was recognized beyond doubt. Eddie Mabo was a man who rose from humble origins as a gardener to becoming one of the national icons of Australia because of the fact that he was deeply involved in fighting for the rights of his people.

While he was born in the Torres Strait Islands, Mabo spent most of his life in Queensland, and was in fact not a well known figure in his home island until after he took his case on indigenous land rights to court. It was only after his death from cancer as well as the court victory over the land issue five months later that his fellow indigenous people on the island welcomed his as one of their own. His victory did not only affect the people of his home island but also all the indigenous people of Australia and this is the reason why Mabo has become one of the most respected men among them. The idea that an indigenous person could almost singlehandedly challenge the Australian status quo and gain a great victory from it was one of those instances which were unheard of in the history of this country. The indigenous people had long been suppressed by the colonial government, and later by the white settlers who dominated and continue to dominate almost every aspect of life in Australia. Mabo’s posthumous court victory ensured that the indigenous people were recognized as a legitimate part of the Australian population with the same rights as those who dominated the society. Furthermore, it may have played a role in the recognition of indigenous people as reasoning human beings who had, throughout the history of the colonization of Australia had been treated unfairly; the court case was therefore the first step in correcting the injustice done to them.

The overturning of the terra nullius policy can be said to be, in reality, a policy of inclusion whose purpose is to ensure that all the Australian people have an equal chance to compete in making their dreams and aspirations come true. Previously, indigenous groups were completely excluded from the majority of economic activities in Australia except for those which were considered to be labor intensive. Moreover these groups were rarely ever accepted in the mainstream Australian life, therefore, Mabo’s court victory can be said to have been a step towards the inclusion of the indigenous people into the center of Australian society. From the very beginning of the Mabo’s case in court, there has been opposition towards it with those against it stating that it is giving an unfair advantage to minority groups over other people in Australia. Those who are opposed to the overturning of the terra nullius system further state that this action went against the proper way of Australian life because of the belief that did not treat all people equally, and instead it gives unfair privileges to those people who would otherwise not have deserved them. These arguments are not very logical considering the injustices which were committed against the indigenous Australian groups in the past. The white population in Australia has been, for a long time, dominant, and Mabo’s court victory was a direct challenge to this status. This may help to explain why Mabo’s grave was vandalized and racist terms painted all over it. This vandalism forced the exhumation of his body and its reburial in his ancestral home in the Torres Strait; a place for whose people he had fought for and won the right to own the land upon which they had lived from time immemorial.

Mabo’s court victory has over the last two decades come to have a significant impact on the people of the islands where he was born. Among the most significant aspects of this has been the recognition that the indigenous people were greatly marginalized in matters concerning health when compared to the mainstream Australian population. This has led to the improvement of the healthcare facilities which are available for them, ensuring a higher life expectancy than in previous years. The declining child death rates has led to a decline in the birth rates, because parents are now more secure because they know that there are enough resources available today to ensure that their children survive. Another reason for this is the fact that the economic conditions prevalent in the indigenous Australian society today do not allow parents to have more than a few children at a time because they cannot afford to have more even if they wanted to. This results in not only fewer children, but it also means that there are fewer ties to the extended family and this in turn means that in subsequent generations, there will be fewer uncles, aunts and cousins, on whom to rely, than in previous generations.

The life expectation of native Australians between the years 1991 and 1996 was projected to be fifty six and sixty one years for men and women in that order. This was found to be considerably lower than that of the mainstream population which was estimated to be between 75 and 91 years for men and women respectively. Furthermore, it was found that the death rate among many indigenous people was at a much higher rate than those of the mainstream Australian population. In fact, the death rate was so high that that they exceeded the general Australian population in every age group that was analyzed. Most of the people from indigenous populations died before reaching the age of fifty, and this was attributed to the lack of the proper healthcare facilities that other Australians have access to. The indigenous population has been completely marginalized in all matters concerning health and this has contributed a great deal in the high mortality rates among them, just when they are at their prime. It has been found that one of the leading causes of death among this population are cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, and these made up 75% of all the deaths that were reported within this population. The rates of hospitalization was much higher among the indigenous people than that of the general Australian public, with these being much higher in all the age groups that were assessed.

While Mabo’s court victory may have been the first step towards the improvement of the lives of the indigenous people, there is still a lot to be done to achieve this objective. Racism is still as prevalent as it was before the ruling, as seen when Mabo’s grave was vandalized just one day after his funeral with racist terms being painted all over his headstone. In addition, the health status of indigenous people, for whom Mabo fought, while it has improved somewhat, still has a long way to go before it can reach the status that the other Australians enjoy. Life expectancy is still low, with many indigenous people not living to be more than fifty years old, an occurrence which is a great tragedy in a country which prides itself in being one of the most developed in the world. The fact that an indigenous person had to go to court in order to get basic land rights for its people shows just how ironic Australian democracy is because it favors those people of Caucasian descent more than the natives of the land. This has created a situation where the latter are dominated completely and they have little say in their own destiny. It is to either bow to the status quo or risk the continued marginalization of their society. This is something which should not be accepted, not only by the indigenous people themselves, but also by the government because the latter should be at the forefront of protecting the rights of the indigenous people. The indigenous people should also fight for their own rights because not to do so would mean that their situation will not be recognized, hence a solution will not be attained. It such a thing was to happen, then the legacy of such indigenous men as Eddie Mabo would be forever tarnished.

Oka Conflict in Canada

The Oka conflict which took place in Quebec in 1990 is considered to be among the most prominent show of Native fight for their land rights in Canada. This is mainly because of the fact that it was a protest against the government of Oka’s decision to expand a golf course into land claimed by the Mohawk people without even consulting the latter and ignoring their pleas. The members of the Mohawk community who led the protests and established barricades barring any form of construction from taking place were labeled as being savages and individuals who spread chaos in the town by a significant population of the town of Oka. The racist remarks, which were made towards these individuals, who were only protecting their environment and land rights from destruction, led to the realization that despite the advancement of the Canadian society, racism was still prevalent within a significant portion of its white population. The media also played a role in downplaying the events which took place during the Oka conflict and he suggests that the media did so mainly because it was an issue involving the natives of the land. The lack of importance that was normally given to the concerns and issues involving the First Nations of Canada may have prompted the media to act the way it did because it was believed to be just another skirmish which would be quickly be resolved. However, he concludes that despite everything, the media also worked towards exposing the crisis on the world stage and this enabled the Canadian government to come to a peaceful resolution of the conflict with the Mohawk people whose rights had been violated.

Had the government been more diligent in its duties towards the First Peoples and the conservation of their environment as well as the protection of their land rights, this confrontation would never have happened. In addition, he states that the actions taken by the mayor of Oka from calling in the police and military forces to deal the situation created a situation where the government turned its military forces towards fighting domestic protestors instead of its main duty of dealing with external threats. The Oka conflict proved to be a turning point in the relationship between the Natives and the Canadian government because the latter came to recognize the importance of having native support before embarking on any projects that were to be conducted on land and reserves claimed by them. The confrontation at Oka marked a turning point in the relationship between the native and non-native people of Canada and this is mainly because it acted as a prelude to further conflicts of their kind in the rest of the country over native land rights and usage. Most of the places where these confrontations took place were not only burial grounds for the native people, but also pristine natural environments which had lain undisturbed for generations. The fight by native people to conserve these areas were the reason for the confrontations which took place because the Canadian government only considered the economic gains from developing these areas and not the deprivation of native rights and degradation of the environment.

The Oka conflict and its aftermath was the beginning of the reconciliation between the rights of the natives and those of the non-natives of Canada. It led to the development of a national dialogue concerning the rights of natives and the need to preserve these rights against any form of economic considerations which might be harmful not only to them but also to their environment. The fact that this and other events took place because of the threat to their land rights and usage ensured that all the parties involved had to come to terms concerning the best way through which the land issue in Canada would be solved. This has come to significantly affect the formulation of government policies towards the environment as well as the native people. Martin declares that the native people of Canada, as a result of these conflicts, have come to be more involved in their own government, with a reduction in their isolation in government, and an increase in programs intended for their empowerment. The fact that these people are being brought into active political life is a clear picture of a change in the Canadian government policy where the process of assimilation is reduced in favor of one of acceptance. The government has come to the realization that the integration of the native peoples in the entire country is important since they represent the cultural heritage of the nation.

After the Oka protests took place, the government came to reverse its methods of dealing with the native people within the country. She considers the fact that while in the past, the government often pursued a policy based on assimilation among the native communities, because of the belief that the latter’s way of life was inferior, this has slowly changed. This is because it has come to be realized that the native are an integral part of the country and that through the Canadian government’s protecting of their rights, interests, as well as their way of life, it is also playing a role in ensuring that its interests in the entire country where natives are present, are protected. In addition,  the Canadian government has set out to work in partnership with the native communities in an attempt to ensure that its position among them is strengthened through the lessening of any antagonism between it and these communities; instead embracing a new spirit of cooperation between them. This has ensured that the land and environmental rights of the native people of Canada have come to be respected and protected by the government.