Oka Conflict in Canada

The Oka conflict which took place in Quebec in 1990 is considered to be among the most prominent show of Native fight for their land rights in Canada. This is mainly because of the fact that it was a protest against the government of Oka’s decision to expand a golf course into land claimed by the Mohawk people without even consulting the latter and ignoring their pleas. The members of the Mohawk community who led the protests and established barricades barring any form of construction from taking place were labeled as being savages and individuals who spread chaos in the town by a significant population of the town of Oka. The racist remarks, which were made towards these individuals, who were only protecting their environment and land rights from destruction, led to the realization that despite the advancement of the Canadian society, racism was still prevalent within a significant portion of its white population. The media also played a role in downplaying the events which took place during the Oka conflict and he suggests that the media did so mainly because it was an issue involving the natives of the land. The lack of importance that was normally given to the concerns and issues involving the First Nations of Canada may have prompted the media to act the way it did because it was believed to be just another skirmish which would be quickly be resolved. However, he concludes that despite everything, the media also worked towards exposing the crisis on the world stage and this enabled the Canadian government to come to a peaceful resolution of the conflict with the Mohawk people whose rights had been violated.

Had the government been more diligent in its duties towards the First Peoples and the conservation of their environment as well as the protection of their land rights, this confrontation would never have happened. In addition, he states that the actions taken by the mayor of Oka from calling in the police and military forces to deal the situation created a situation where the government turned its military forces towards fighting domestic protestors instead of its main duty of dealing with external threats. The Oka conflict proved to be a turning point in the relationship between the Natives and the Canadian government because the latter came to recognize the importance of having native support before embarking on any projects that were to be conducted on land and reserves claimed by them. The confrontation at Oka marked a turning point in the relationship between the native and non-native people of Canada and this is mainly because it acted as a prelude to further conflicts of their kind in the rest of the country over native land rights and usage. Most of the places where these confrontations took place were not only burial grounds for the native people, but also pristine natural environments which had lain undisturbed for generations. The fight by native people to conserve these areas were the reason for the confrontations which took place because the Canadian government only considered the economic gains from developing these areas and not the deprivation of native rights and degradation of the environment.

The Oka conflict and its aftermath was the beginning of the reconciliation between the rights of the natives and those of the non-natives of Canada. It led to the development of a national dialogue concerning the rights of natives and the need to preserve these rights against any form of economic considerations which might be harmful not only to them but also to their environment. The fact that this and other events took place because of the threat to their land rights and usage ensured that all the parties involved had to come to terms concerning the best way through which the land issue in Canada would be solved. This has come to significantly affect the formulation of government policies towards the environment as well as the native people. Martin declares that the native people of Canada, as a result of these conflicts, have come to be more involved in their own government, with a reduction in their isolation in government, and an increase in programs intended for their empowerment. The fact that these people are being brought into active political life is a clear picture of a change in the Canadian government policy where the process of assimilation is reduced in favor of one of acceptance. The government has come to the realization that the integration of the native peoples in the entire country is important since they represent the cultural heritage of the nation.

After the Oka protests took place, the government came to reverse its methods of dealing with the native people within the country. She considers the fact that while in the past, the government often pursued a policy based on assimilation among the native communities, because of the belief that the latter’s way of life was inferior, this has slowly changed. This is because it has come to be realized that the native are an integral part of the country and that through the Canadian government’s protecting of their rights, interests, as well as their way of life, it is also playing a role in ensuring that its interests in the entire country where natives are present, are protected. In addition,  the Canadian government has set out to work in partnership with the native communities in an attempt to ensure that its position among them is strengthened through the lessening of any antagonism between it and these communities; instead embracing a new spirit of cooperation between them. This has ensured that the land and environmental rights of the native people of Canada have come to be respected and protected by the government.

Raging Bull (1980)

Among the greatest films of the drama genre is 1980’s Raging Bull, which starred Robert De Niro as the boxer Jake La Motta and all the evidence from the film suggests that De Niro paid a lot of attention to the details concerning La Motta’s life so as to be as close to the historical record as possible. The making of Raging Bull seems to pay a lot of attention to the issues concerning realism, history and artistic truth, which are the main ingredients in the making of successful dramas. The way through which the actor perceives his role on screen allows him to make an accurate depiction of the emotions that a real life individual, such a Jake La Motta, experienced. The heart of Raging Bull is based on the ability of De Niro to recreate the life of La Motta in particular moments of his life since this enable his to portray the truth concerning La Motta’s daily reality. In the making of the film, De Niro had to immerse himself into the various aspects of La Motta’s life during the different periods of his life, from when he was at his peak to when he was at his worst, and this was with the aim of ensuring that he understood the realities of the role that he was playing. De Niro seems to have take to heart not only the emotional depictions of La Motta but also his physical ones since he worked towards achieving a physique that was as close to La Motta’s as possible. These attributes enabled De Niro to become a living representation of the life of La Motta on film and it allowed Raging Bull to become a critically acclaimed success for many years.

The immersion of De Niro into the life of La Motta is evident in the film as seen through the way he portrays La Motta’s life from the peak of his success as a boxing champion, to his marriage, the jealousy that he has over his wife’s affairs, his estrangement from his brother, and his eventual fall from grace as he has bad encounters with the law. In addition, De Niro took up a training regimen to ensure that he had the body and the making of a boxer and this can be attested to in all the fight scenes in the film. According to La Motta’s own account, De Niro trained with him on a daily basis for over a year in order to achieve the required physical form for the film. The film attempts to recreate all the major fights that La Motta had ever fought in his career in a way that is as realistic as possible and this allows it not only to bring La Motta closer to the audience, but also serves the purpose of showing the level of dedication that De Niro had in preparation for filming. It is evidence for the dedication needed for the filming of drama such as Raging Bull, from the actors who have to completely change their lifestyle so that they can achieve both the physical and emotional form that it needed for the accurate depiction of the various themes involved in the film. The result of such dedication is often the realistic depiction of the film which enables it to be able to connect with its potential audiences at a personal and empathetic level that is as close as possible to their daily real life problems.

Among the biggest concerns of actors who have been selected to portray characters in drama films is whether they can be able to be convincing to the audience. The same thing happened to De Niro and this is the reason why he sought to gain some experience in the boxing ring in preparation for the filming. In addition, De Niro accurately depicts La Motta’s obsession with weight throughout the film and he does this through gaining and losing weight in real life so that he can also adequately depict the emotional dilemma that La Motta had concerning his weight. In the film, De Niro attempts to recapture the specific gestures that La Motta made during his fights as a way of ensuring accuracy and these are used to underline the actor’s naturalistic and historically informed depiction of his role in Raging Bull. Each of the scenes in the film, even the fight scenes, is highly emotional affairs which enable the audience to become directly involved with La Motta, understanding his motivations as well as the circumstances behind the successes and failures that he experienced in his life. This film, however, works towards the clearing of some of the negative images of La Motta during his public and private life as a professional boxer. It attempts to show that, like any other person, La Motta was also human, with all faults and failings that are associated with the race. The image of La Motta that is brought about by the film is that of a person with many complexities. It partially burnishes the common public image of La Motta as being a ruthless boxer who would stop at nothing, nor hesitate in the ring in order to achieve victory. It shows that although his actions seemed to be ruthless on the outside, La Motta still had a conscience, and he often reflected on these actions. Another image of La Motta that comes forth in the film is that of being a player in significant historical events, which ended up being disastrous for him in a personal manner since he ended up losing almost everything that was important to him. La Motta shows some regret for some of the actions he took in his belief that he was doing his best to ensure that he was not only successful professionally, but that his family was also maintained. Despite this, La Motta not repentant, and it is quite possible that the regret he displays is the closest thing to an apology that he is going to make to his fans and admirers for his actions. The film gives a rare glimpse at a man who was both enormously respected and admired by many.

This is an emotional film to watch because it does not have any action but it instead deals with the emotional aspects of the people within it. It has a powerful plot which curiously creates an environment that displays the day to day lives of the characters. When one watches this film, one comes to the conclusion that life is a journey which has its ups and downs and that the best way to handle this transition should not be resistance, but acceptance. In addition, the self-destructive acts that leads to the end of La Motta’s professional career, something which he depends on to earn a living, is highly symbolic. The film itself is not boring because of the heavy drama which is involved in every scene. The camera work is done so well that this film can be considered to be a rare phenomenon in the American film industry of the 1970s. In conclusion, it can be said that this film is highly revelatory of the life and times of Jake La Motta. 

Banned From The Bible - The Stories That Were Deleted From Biblical History

Understanding the Global Community - Liberalism/Neoliberalism

Gran Torino (2008)

Gran Torino is a film that depicts the relationship between Walt Kowalski, a Korean War veteran who has been recently widowed, and Thao Vang Lor, a young neighbor of Hmong origins. The anger and bitterness that Walt feels towards the world and his family dives him towards living a lonely life alienated from almost everyone else. Thao is a young man who seeks to join a gang led by his cousin with the latter encouraging him to steal Walt’s Ford Gran Torino as an initiation ritual into the gang. When Walt foils his attempt, he and Thao end up developing a wary friendship with the former acting as a mentor for the young man. This is a story that shows the life that ethnic minorities in the United States have to live because they have very few opportunities to ensure that they improve the circumstances in their lives. Gran Torino is a film that seeks to ensure that there is recognition of the cultural diversity that exists in the United States and the need for there to be cultural understanding in order for social cohesion to take place. The multicultural relationship between Walt and Thao can be considered to be an illustration of what can be achieved through cultural understanding while Walt’s family’s seeming disapproval of the Hmong’s community attending Walt’s funeral can be considered to be a sign of the cultural alienation that Hmong in the United States have experienced since their arrival. Gran Torinoallows for a unique view of the Hmong community in the United States as well as advocates for a need for the development of cultural cohesion in the nation.

One of the most important cultural relationships that are depicted in Grand Torino is that between Walt, Thao and Thao’s Hmong family. Walt, a recently widowed white American, ends up striking a friendship with Thao’s family and becomes a mentor for Thao and his sister Sue. Sue also helps Walt learn Hmong culture and this cultural understanding brings him even closer to the Vang Lor family as well as to the rest of the Hmong community in the neighborhood. Furthermore, it should be noted that Sue goes against cultural isolation through her choosing to date Trey; a young white man. Walt becomes so involved with the Vang Lor family to such an extent that they become closer to him than his own family: the latter who he considers to be emotionally detached from him with their only interest being on his estate. Walt’s involvement with the Hmong community also opens his eyes to the cultural diversity that is present in his neighborhood and this allows him to ensure that he not only feels like a part of this community, but also seeks to protect them from Spider’s gang.

The process of acculturation is one where communities, mainly migrant, adapt to the culture of their new countries in order to fit in with the rest of society. This is normally done in a diverse number of ways from matters concerning diet to such aspects as language and names. In Gran Torino, it should be noted that a significant number of individuals in the Hmong community have come to adopt diverse aspects of American culture. Among these, as seen in this film, is that of dating, where both Thao and his sister Sue date; a situation which is not common in Hmong culture. Another aspect of culture that is seen in this film is enculturation, which is a situation where individuals learn the requirements of a new culture and adapt to aspects of its language and rituals to ensure social acceptance. This is the case with Walt who, with Sue’s help, seeks to ensure that he learns aspects of Hmong culture in order to better interact with the community.

Cultural relativism is the judging of an alien culture through its own understanding of its practices rather than one’s own. This is opposed to ethnocentrism which is the judgment of a different culture based on one’s own cultural perspective. Subcultures are the practices conducted by a small group of individuals in a bid to ensure that they differentiate themselves from the larger cultural grouping. In Gran Torino, all these aspects of culture are dealt with, as seen through cultural relativism where Sue encourages Walt to develop and understanding of Hmong culture. This is in contrast with Walt’s previous opinion of his Hmong neighbors where he often judged them based on his own culture and cared nothing for them. A sub-cultural perspective is where Spider’s gang conducts its own rites of initiation into the group and acts to punish those it believes are turning away from its culture. This is especially the case with the gang’s attempt to punish Thao for failing in stealing the Ford Gran Torino that would have allowed him to join the gang.

In conclusion, the discussion above has sought to show that Gran Torino is a film that portrays the diverse aspects of culture in the United States. Most of the instances that take place within this film are based on culture and its aspects such as ethnocentrism, acculturation, enculturation, as well as subculture. All of the latter are shown in the film through the interactions that take place between Walt, the Vang Lor family, and Spider’s gang and this ensures that there is greater cultural understanding; especially in relation to Hmong American culture. The film shows that cultural isolation is detrimental to individual development, as seen in the hostile attitude that Walt has towards his neighbors before the beginning of his interaction with the Vang Lor family and Hmong culture. Therefore, one would suggest that Gran Torino is a film that seeks to show how greater cultural interaction between the mainstream and minority cultures in the United States would allow for greater social development. Not only would it bring out the best of these cultures, but it would also lead to a situation where there is an advancement of social cohesion which is a desirable trait in any nation.

Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)

Fahrenheit 9/11 is a 2004 documentary directed by Michael Moore in a bid to create awareness concerning the events leading to the 9/11 attacks and their aftermath. It is specifically intended for the American public especially when one considers that it was released during an election year. The audience of this documentary is treated to massive revelations concerning the manner through which the Bush administration has been compromised through the President’s looking after his personal interests instead of those of the American people. This documentary was intended to steer public anger against president Bush to such an extent that he was not reelected but this turned out not to be the case since he won the elections.

This documentary was developed for the purpose of ensuring that the American public as well as the rest of the world was made aware of events leading to the 9/11 attacks as well as its having occurred because of the connections between the Bush, Saud and Bin Laden families. This can be considered to be a political documentary whose main reason was to ensure the President Bush was not reelected for another term as president of the United States. The main message that this film attempts to get to its audience is that the Bush administration had lost all credibility to lead the nation and had to be voted out of office. Furthermore, the documentary attempts to show that the 9/11 attacks were a conspiracy developed to ensure that an environment of fear was developed in the country to such an extent that the Bush administration was able to pursue its political agenda in the global arena. The war on terror is presented as a cover for a sinister plot between the Bush family and its allies to ensure that they have control over resources in the Middle East at the cost of the lives of numerous American servicemen and women.

I knew nothing concerning the subject of the documentary prior to viewing it and what I found out was quite interesting. The issue of the 9/11 attacks having been a conspiracy was the farthest thing from my mind because of my constant belief that they were merely terrorist attacks perpetrated by the al Qaeda network. When I first went to see the documentary, I expected it to elaborate on the events leading to the 9/11 attacks as well as a background of the perpetrators. Furthermore, I expected it to document the progress made by the government in the war on terror and how it was gathering information concerning the eventual capture of Osama bin Laden. However, once I saw the documentary, I was surprised at the different subject matter that it covered and it brought to the fore many questions among which was whether the people of the United States are as free as they believe they are. Furthermore, my curiosity concerning the controversies surrounding the 9/11 attacks was aroused because I came to view them from a very different perspective from what I had gotten used to.

The main subject of Fahrenheit 9/11 are the 9/11 attacks and the events which took place prior, during, and after they happened. This documentary show that the Bush, Bin Laden, and Saud families had a long business relationship spanning decades and because of this, they had developed fast friendships. There is an implication that these three families were responsible for staging the 9/11 attacks to create an excuse for the American military machine to be used in attaining their political and economic interests in the Middle East. The documentary makes a display of the realities of the war on terror and how recruiters are used by military to bring in individuals from poor backgrounds to fight in Iraq and Afghanistan. Moore shows that despite its being widely touted as a war on terror, the main intention of this war is to ensure that there are further limitations to the freedoms of American people while at the same time working for the economic interests of a limited number of people. The documentary is filmed in the United States while there is footage from other parts of the world in an attempt to put flesh on its subject matter.

Moore makes constructive uses of sound effects in order to make the audience feel the sinister nature of the documentary’s subject. When he describes the manner through which a conspiracy is hatched to deprive Americans of their freedoms, the sound effects in the background enhance this and make the audience fear for their freedoms. In cases where interviews are being conducted, the lighting is quite sharp and this is used as a means of showing the audience the seriousness of what the interviewees are saying. However, when sinister connections between individuals are displayed, the images are darkened and this evokes an eerie feeling within the person watching the documentary. Important images throughout the documentary are brought into sharp focus especially where Moore is attempting to display such instances as where he is denied access to certain places. The interviews are quite interesting because Moore deals with individuals in a more or less informal manner, making them more comfortable and resulting in their saying more than they normally would have.

The part which I liked the most was that which showed President Bush at a classroom in an elementary school after being told that the World Trade Center had been hit by a plane. The moments that he sat still without taking any action seem to suggest that he may have been party to the attacks taking place. In addition, the documentary provides very important lessons one of which is that there is no need for certain legislation, such as the Patriot Act to be passed out of fear rather than being though through carefully. One of the issues which surprised me in the documentary was the association between the Bush and Bin Laden families which had spanned decades; a fact which I did not know before watching Fahrenheit 9/11. However, a drawback occurs where individuals such as President Bush, who are its subjects, are not interviewed in order to give their side of the story and this creates a situation where the documentary can be considered to be one-sided. Despite this, Fahrenheit 9/11 is a documentary which I would be glad to recommend from my friends because it is one which will open their eyes to the workings of the world and show them that not everything is what it seems.

The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (2003)

The Fog of War is a film which is based on the life of a man who has, for a long time, been disliked by the American public. This man is former Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, who can be said to be one of the most controversial figures to hold that office. This film analyzes the course of his whole life, in the perspective of McNamara himself. Not only does it look at his childhood, it also looks at the way he was brought up and the education he received. Furthermore, it deals with McNamara’s experience in the service of the public, from the time when he was a strategist in World War Two, to his being appointed Secretary of Defense, and also his tenure as the president of the World Bank. McNamara’s public career is laid bare for all the people of the United States to see, featuring interviews of McNamara himself as he speaks of the motivation behind the controversial decisions he made. One of the major highlights of this film is when he gives reasons for the atrocious actions he took when working as a strategist during World War Two. He is among the people who took part in the planning, and carrying out, of bombings of Tokyo in 1945 which killed many thousands of people. To justify this, McNamara states that the Japanese would have done the same thing to Americans had they been given an opportunity to do so.

The film also analyzes, at length, the years during which McNamara served as the Secretary of Defense during the presidencies of John Kennedy and his successor, Lyndon Johnson. It is stated by McNamara that Kennedy once suggested that the United States should withdraw from the war in Vietnam, but McNamara, in his capacity as Defense Secretary, advised him against it. A first hand view of how the Cuban Missile Crisis was handled by McNamara, with some of the decisions taken at the time being expounded on by the subject of the film, that is, McNamara. This film is divided into eleven parts, each of which deals with a part of McNamara’s career as well as his personal comments on how he handled matters in those times. McNamara displays an immense deal of pride in what he accomplished during his career in the public service, and although it was, he does not make any apologies for the mistaken decisions which he made. On the contrary, he only displays some regrets concerning those decisions and states that perhaps things could have been handled better. According to McNamara, the whole reason for the film being made is to make clear the fact that even reason has limits. What one concludes from this statement is that there are some actions, even of done for good, which sometimes end up producing results which are opposite what was. In fact, this can be said to be true of McNamara’s continued support for the Vietnam War even when it was known by the public that it was a complete failure.

For many people today, Robert McNamara’s term as the country’s Secretary of Defense was a complete failure. It is believed that most of the decisions he made tended to have a negative impact on the United States. This film, however, works towards the clearing of such a negative image of the man who served two administrations. It attempts to show that, like any other person, McNamara was also human, with all faults and failings that are associated with the race. The image of McNamara that is brought about by the film is that of a person with many complexities. It partially burnishes the common public image of McNamara being a heartless individual who would stop at nothing, nor hesitate to use anyone to achieve his goals. It shows that although his actions seemed to be ruthless on the outside, the man still had a conscience, and he often reflected on these actions. Another image of McNamara that comes forth in the film is that of being a player in significant historical events, which ended up being disastrous for those people who were directly affected. McNamara shows some regret for some of the actions he took in his belief that he was serving the best interests of his country. Despite this, he is not apologetic, and it is quite possible that the regret he displays is the closest thing to an apology that he is going to make. The film gives a rare glimpse at a man who was both enormously feared and admired by many.

The U.S. Military should shift its focus from Terrorism

There has recently developed the argument that the time has come for military of the United States to shift its focus from terrorism to other matters which are designed to promote international peace. It is for this reason that many policy makers have increasingly started shifting their attention from the war on terror to other initiatives that involve less military involvement in combat and more on peacekeeping and diplomatic initiatives. According to McAllister (2007), the United States in recent years has come to develop some very close relationships with its former adversaries such as Russia, with which it has developed increasing cooperation in matters concerning nonproliferation and counterterrorism. The main reason for the increased cooperation between these countries, according to McAllister is mainly because of the increasing threats to international security through the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction by rogue states as well as the development of religious radicalism which further increases international insecurity. As world leaders, both the United States and Russia have come to realize that they have a common interest in the containment of security threats and these have been exemplified through the increasing risk of terrorist attacks against the United States as well as the radicalization that is taking place in the Caucasus region of Russia. It is mainly through military cooperation between these states, as seen through bilateral, unilateral, and multilateral initiatives, which have ensured that there is proper distribution of international power in ensuring security. McAllister concludes that while the American and Russian militaries have in recent years seen some level of cooperation, the fact remains that these two countries still have a long way to go before they can be able to fully cooperate in all matters concerning international security. It is for this reason that cases that deal directly with national security are dealt with informally, on a case-by-case starting point.

The military-led war on terror has led to a situation where a large number of suspected terrorists have been detained at the Guantanamo Bay detention facility and it is for this reason that there has been plenty of agitation for the release of some of them, because they are deemed to be innocent. Foley (2007) states that the supporters of the policy of detaining individuals for long periods of time without trial justify their support by declaring that it provides the president with the capacity to contain terrorists and through vigorous interrogation are able to provide details of planned attacks. According to Foley, this plan has been widely criticized from its beginnings because it is a direct violation of human rights and lacks in any moral grounds making in illegal. This use of the military in the interrogation and detention of suspected terrorists, Foley states, has been a complete failure because it has led to the imprisonment of some innocent people who have only confessed to crimes they did not commit because of the fear of torture. The fact that the military is used in the development of indiscriminate dragnets, incarceration as well as the use of coercive interrogations who have not been proven to be terrorists has led to the discrediting of the American military, which many believed is a tool of American injustice. There has developed the risk of intelligence agencies being provided with false information through the false confessions of individuals who do not know anything about what they are talking about and this has led to the increasing misinformation that has hampered the progress of the war on terror. Because of the abject failure of coercive interrogations, the United States government has come to fail to comprehend the connection between detention, interrogation, and detentions and this has led to the failure to sort those individuals who are terrorists from non-terrorists through the judicial process.

It is a fact that many of the individuals who, through military action, have been detained are not accorded any of the constitutional rights that are commonplace among most Americans. This has led to the increasing disillusionment of the families of the individuals that have been detained that they will receive justice by proving their innocence. According to Jenkins (2006), in the 2004 case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, the Supreme Court ruled that the individuals who had been detained by the government on suspicion of being terrorists only had limited rights and that because of this; they had no ability to challenge their status as enemy combatants. Jenkins further states that it was in response to this case that the Bush government formed the Combatant Status Review Tribunal (CSRT), although this tribunal proved not to be effective because it functioned as the propagator of the government’s case against the detainees. This tribunal has proven to apply a broad definition to all of those individuals who have been categorized as enemy combatants and because the detainees are prohibited from having lawyers, they are not able to argue against the tribunal’s decision to detain them indefinitely. The military commissions which were developed by the Bush government to try detainees on charges of terrorism and war crimes have, according to Jenkins, been rigged against the accused. This is mainly because of the fact that these commissions rely completely on the confessions coerced from the detainees through torture, the use of hearsay, as well as the use of soldiers as jurors. Because military commissions have the power of passing the death sentence to those who are brought before them has created a situation where it is extremely difficult for the individuals who have been falsely accused to get out of the situation alive. This is the reason why some innocent detainees, in their attempt to stay alive end up falsely accusing others and confessing to crimes they did not commit as a way of avoiding the death sentence. In addition, Jenkins states that because of the rigged rules that have been put in place in the trials of detainees, it has become the norm for investigators to remain confident that they will win all the cases that are brought before them. This is mainly because investigators have come to see little need to infiltrate terrorist organizations to gain tangible or credible details for their cases, relying on the mostly false confessions of their detainees. Kim and Allard (2008) state that since its development, there have been many challenges faced by the Department of Homeland Security in its attempt to create a common culture within the intelligence agencies under its jurisdiction. It is the development of a common culture between these disparate agencies that, in addition to the military, is essential for the development of a comprehensive antiterrorism strategy. This has not been the case and has led to the failure of intelligence agencies to develop accurate databases, and this has resulted in the failure of some military operations meant to deal with terrorist threats.

The 9/11 attacks on the United States has led to the development of a new American approach to foreign policy which is intimately tied to the security of the nation. According to Miles (2012), the American foreign policy towards Africa has been based on ensuring its security and this has come to rival development as the main reason behind American involvement in this continent. All development programs and projects that are of American origin have attached to them a security dimension, developed by the department of defense, which works hand in hand with such institutions as USAID. Miles argues that the high potential for acts of terrorism to be committed in the United States has led it to adopt policies towards Africa which serve to undermine its development. This is the reason, he states, why it is important for the United States to adopt counterterrorism measures towards Africa which are fairly mild to ensure that it becomes a strategic as well as developmental defense activity. Miles, in the writing of his article uses records as well as a study of the American policies towards the Maghreb region from the Bush through to the Obama administrations. The result of this study is that since the 9/11 attacks, the American policy towards this region has seriously shifted, ensuring that the previously diverse developmental and security initiatives in the region have become converged into one initiative. The result of this has been that there has developed a wide range of sympathetic public opinion throughout Africa towards the American military involvement in their countries, with many believing that they are the best option for deterring terrorism. This, however, has not been the case in American public, where there is a large number of people who question the validity of the military being actively involved in the developmental and security programs of African nations when they can do more in fighting terrorism.

The American military involvement in the war on terror has had an adverse effect on the internal stability of some countries such as Pakistan, which has since the beginning of this initiative, been a staunch American ally. According to Khan (2010), Pakistan’s military alliance with the United States has led to a situation where it is currently facing an internal crisis. This crisis stems from the fact that the government which recently came to power has had to contend with the commitments made by the previous government to the American cause as well as maintaining a stable relationship with its neighbors that has been soured by the war on terror. Khan further states that it is because of Pakistan’s involvement in the war on terror that its security has come under threat not only from India, its longtime rival, but also Afghanistan. Khan therefore offers the opinion that the only solution for this situation is for the United States to restrain the activities of India along the border close to Pakistan and Afghanistan. Moreover, according to Mohamadian (2012), there has been numerous debates among scholars concerning the unilateral military actions that the United States has taken in the Middle East which have come to affect diplomacy and international relations. While the intentions of some of these interventions might have been sound, the result has been arise in sectarian violence, especially in Iraq, as well as the prevalence of terrorist attacks, and these have come to threaten the American-led initiative to rebuild the Iraqi state. Furthermore, Ahmad (2010) states that there has developed some friction between the United States’ counterterrorism initiative and the one of Pakistan and this have created a situation where there is conflict between their national interests. Pakistan’s reliance on irregular warfare in its region is one of its instruments of national security and this has come to be challenged by the United States government which seeks to bring these activities to an end, therefore not serving Pakistan’s national interests.

The Virgin Mary Painting and Religion in Mexican art

Religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. The fact that a large number of Mexican artists are influenced by religion in their work is mainly based on the fact that a majority of Mexicans are highly religious individuals, and very devoted to the Roman Catholic Church (Taylor, 145). It has been found that a large number of artists in Mexico consider it their duty to create religious images because in the devotional sense, they consider it to be an act of worship. The Virgin Mary also has a very prominent position in the religious art of Mexico and this is mainly because of the fact that she is highly venerated in the country with many Mexicans considering her to be the mother of the entire nation. In addition, many Mexicans during their prayers seek the help of the Virgin Mary as they ask her to intercede to God and Jesus on their behalf and this has ensured that she has come to be revered by all the people in the nation. The prominence of the Virgin Mary in the national psyche has ensured that she is also given a prominent position in art, because Mexican artists, like all Mexican people, are very devoted to her. This has led to a situation where most of the art in the country has some religious aspect in one way or the other and this has ensured that the religious spirit of Mexican artwork has remained prevalent with little sign of its diminishing in the coming years. Religion has been a source of inspiration for Mexican art for many years and it is for this reason that a large number of art that it produced in this country, even that in the secular realm, has some aspect of religion within it.

As has been mentioned above, Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. However, it has been found that the Catholicism that is practiced in this country is highly syncretic, and this is mainly because of the fact that a large number of the indigenous people readily accepted it after the Spanish conquest (Carruthers, 358). While this may have been the case, most of them accepted the new religion by making an association between it and their own traditional religions so that the Virgin of Guadalupe came to be associated with their goddess Tonantzin, and it is in the latter manner that she has been depicted in Mexican art to this day. It is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. The Catholic Church has always been a champion for the rights of all the common people in Mexico as they have fought against tyrannical or elitist rule since their independence (Purnell, 222). These actions on behalf of the people have given it massive influence over their lives and this has been based on the respect that many Mexicans feel towards it. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists include aspects of their Catholic beliefs in their artwork and many of them feel that in doing so, they are fulfilling their religious and devotional duty towards the individuals that they depict in their work. In the latter case, most of the images which are depicted in Mexican art involve the Virgin Mary, shown in her incarnation as the Virgin of Guadalupe, and the most respected religious figure in the country.

Most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. It is therefore common for Mexican artists to include some form of religious symbol in their art, the most common being the image of the crucified Jesus or the image of the Virgin Mary in one of her incarnations, especially as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Pardo, 312). This influence of religion in Mexican art is normally further enforced through the involvement of priests in the daily lives of most Mexicans. This involvement tends to be marked by various important events such as during births, weddings, and death; all of these events being normally officiated by priests. In addition, it has been found that priests also get involved in other activities in the lives of many Mexicans such as when the latter need to have their property, such as newly acquired homes, vehicles and businesses, blessed by a priest. Thus, priests are not only involved in the daily religious lives of many Mexicans, but parish priests tend to be also involved in their social lives as well and this is normally because the priests more often than not know a majority of the members of the communities whom they serve. The priests, being representatives of the church, usually end up emphasizing, albeit unconsciously, the role of the Church in the daily lives of many Mexicans and all of this, one would suggest, has a profound influence on the work of artists. In this manner, the influence of religious practitioners in Mexico cannot be underestimated when one considers the fact that most of the art of this country is very religious in character and this attests to the highly devotional nature of the artists to their religious beliefs as well.

Religious rituals and holy places have been found to play a significant role in the art of Mexico and this is because of the fact that these are very important aspects of life in this country. In most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar (Conover, 441). These events, from the Last Supper, Transfiguration, and Crucifixion are among the most revered aspects of Mexican religious belief and because artists want to connect with their audience, they normally include these events in their art. The ability of religion to influence the artists of Mexico can also be attributed to the numerous religious observances that Mexicans often participate in throughout the year in veneration of the large number of Catholic saints according to the religious calendar. These events often attract a large number of people and pilgrims not only from Mexico but also from the rest of the world who come to visit the holy places in this country. It is mainly because of the high religious observance by people from Mexico that artists add aspects of religion in their work and they do this to ensure that they not only connect with their audience, but that they are able to sell their art, because it is through the latter that they make a living. Thus, artists often tap into the emotional attachment that many Mexicans have to religion in order to develop the form of art which is full of religious aspects which are often sold faster than those with secular aspects. For a nation which is highly devoted to Catholic beliefs, it is normal for many individuals, especially those who go on pilgrimage to religious shrines, to want to take religious art back to their homes (Bailey, 191). This is where artists have an advantage because they are able to develop art forms which appeal to the majority of the pilgrims and in this manner; they are able to make a more comfortable living from their work than those who concentrate on nonreligious art. Furthermore, it is a fact that all communities in Mexico, both urban and rural, tend to have their own patron saints and artists have taken advantage of this aspect of Mexican life to make art which is representative of all of these communities.

Because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. This obsession with death and the afterlife can be attributed to the massive integration of indigenous religious beliefs into the Mexican Catholic culture and this has ensured that many of the artists within this culture are very interested in the subject (Nesvig, 225). For most Mexicans, the need to live a good life so that when they die and reach judgment, they can be promoted to paradise is very essential for them and this leads them to devote at least some of their time to religious observances. Their entreaties to the Virgin of Guadalupe to intercede to God on their behalf have created a situation where artists work very hard to ensure that they present this situation as it is. Death in Mexican culture is not something to be feared but is accepted as a basic part of life and is at times celebrated and it is mainly because of this perception that it has become part of their basic religious beliefs. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists, in their depictions of death, instead of making it gloomy and a sad event, depict it a celebration, as it is believed that those individuals who are dying have moved on to be with their creator (De León, 493). This is in contrast with other cultures, especially those to the north of Mexico, where artists often depict death as something scary which many human beings fear and try to escape it at all costs. Mexican art, on the other hand, is quite open concerning the various aspects of death and this is because of their staunch religious beliefs concerning the matter, since there is the constant belief that there is an afterlife and that the best means to deal with it is not to fear it, but to celebrate it. The best examples of Mexican art concerning death are those inspired by the Days of the Dead, which act as days when the dead within the society are not only remembered but also celebrated.

Artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them. One will find that even in their depictions of the most regular things in life, such as love, hate, nature, and other forms of art subjects, most of these artists often make religious depictions or they create images which more or less have religious connotations (Wolford, 1049). This not only enables them to show their artistic prowess, but it also allows them to ensure that they do so in a manner which is both attractive and devotional. Catholic beliefs are predominant within Mexico and it is very difficult to go anywhere within the settled part of the country where there are no religious depictions in one form or the other (Schroeder, 56). These often serve as inspirations for many artists who base their works on them while at the same time working towards depicting the everyday lives of Mexicans. Because of the highly religious nature of some of the Mexican artworks, there is a lot of demand for it from the extremely devoted members of the local society, many of whom put these artworks in their homes or places of work in the belief that they bring them closer to God. The art of Mexico which has religious aspects has come to also have a high demand internationally, especially from those individuals and states which are devoutly Catholic and this has ensured that there are massive purchases of the same. This demand has also encouraged more artists to concentrate on the creation of works which are religious in nature as this has more demand than secular art. However, in recent years, with the younger generation of Mexicans not being as devout as their parents and previous generations, there has developed a high demand for secular artwork. There has developed a trend where the influence of religion on Mexican art has begun to wane as the population becomes more secularized as a result of the various aspects of globalization. While this has been the case, one will also find that the influence of religion is still strong and while its influence may be waning, it will likely remain a strong part of Mexican art in the coming generations.

In conclusion, it has been found that religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. It has also been found that Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. In addition, it is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. Moreover, it is important to note that most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. Furthermore, in most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar. Finally, because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. Thus, one would say that the artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them.

African Americans and Japanese Americans During WWII and its Aftermath

African Americans and Japanese Americans had a long history of discrimination in the country and this became worse during and after the Second World War when many of them came to be segregated along racial lines. The history of discrimination against these two communities tended to be extreme because they were treated as lesser human beings who had no rights. Therefore, despite having been in America for several generations already, these groups came to face many challenges especially during the war and post-war period.

When the African Americans who had been to the war returned home, they came with new ideas acquired from their experiences in the warzone in Europe. While they were in Europe, they had been treated on an equal basis by the white people of that continent and this made them realise their rights as human beings. Those from the south had a new mindset which would eventually lead them to ensuring that their rights as human beings were respected and that the Jim Crow South did not remain as it had been previously.

The fact that African Americans came to realise their rights and demanded them did not go down well within the white dominated society. This period came to see heavy attacks on the African Americans by the white establishment, especially in the south where many were attacked in broad daylight in full view of the police who did nothing to protect these people (Hobson, 356). It was the escalation of these attacks as well as the discrimination in other sectors of the social and economic life of the United States that there developed the Civil Rights Movement whose main purpose was to fight for the rights of the African Americans.

After the Pearl Harbour attacks in the United States, where the Imperial Japanese navy attacked the United States on its own soil, it was the Japanese Americans who came to face the brunt of the public anger that developed. The Japanese Americans were innocent of any involvement in these attacks yet they were increasingly viewed with suspicion by the mainstream American society. This situation became worse once the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, since the Japanese Americans were made to leave their homes and moved into detention camps because of the suspicion that there were Japanese spies among them (Staub 1238).

The fact that they were detained by their own government despite having lived in the United States for generations and having broken all ties with Japan was a sign that they had not been fully accepted into American society. Those who were detained in these camps, when eventually set free, were much traumatised because they failed to see the reason why they had been detained in the first place. Just because they looked different form the rest of the American people and that their ancestors originally came from a country which had attacked the United States was not a valid reason for their discrimination and this they came to realise as a violation of their fundamental rights as Americans.

The Influence of the Myth of Napoleon and the Napoleonic years on the Development of Romanticism

The myth of Napoleon has been found to have played a significant role in the development of the second wave of French romantic poetry. Such poets as Hugo and Musset were greatly influenced by the events that were considered to have been irrevocably tied to Napoleon, and it is to these myths that some of their greatest works can be attributed. While this may be the fact, the outside world seems to know very little concerning this remarkable man who is often considered to have been the villain in the stories concerning him outside of France itself. In Britain, for example, the fact that Napoleon was considered an enemy of the British civilisation has continued to be the view in the current world and this has affected the way that they view the French ruler. It is said that he was short in stature and that because of his height; he felt that everyone looked down on him, making him want to achieve greatness in compensation. Despite the stereotypes that have developed concerning Napoleon in some countries, the fact remains that he was the greatest ruler that France had ever had since Charlemagne.

One myth that has often been propagated concerning Napoleon was his height, which many stated that was quite short. This myth has turned out not to be true and this has been mainly because of the fact that he was 5’7”, which was about the average height of a Frenchman in the nineteenth century. In addition, Napoleon was a genuine believer in a united Europe which united all the European peoples under one state, despite their nationalities and ethnicities, so that there could be lasting peace between them. During this period, it was the British, not Napoleon, who did not want a peaceful settlement to the dispute concerning the dominion of the French empire over Europe, because the French empire was believed to be a potential threat to the prosperity of British trade and security both on land and at sea. An example of the reluctance of the British to reach a peaceful settlement with Napoleon was seen through the British breaking the treaty of Amiens, which resulted in war. In the resultant war, Napoleon only went to war because he wanted to retain his crown and not because he was in any way antagonistic towards the British. It is a fact that unlike other rulers in Europe who after defeat could still simply remains in power, this was not the case with Napoleon and this was because he was considered by the other rulers in Europe to be an upstart, who had taken the crown that legitimately belonged to the Bourbons. Thus, Napoleon could not afford to lose a fight because if he did, then all would be lost for him, an example of this being when in 1812, rumours spread that he had been killed in the Russian campaign, the British worked towards the restoration of the Bourbons, overlooking Napoleon’s son’s claim to the throne.

The romantic poets garnered their inspiration from Napoleon, whom they praised considerably in their works while comparing him to his less liked nephew, Napoleon III, who was the French emperor at the time. The image of Napoleon as a hero was not reflected in countries outside France, especially Britain, where the government worked tirelessly to ensure that the reputation of Napoleon was damaged beyond repair. There was the use of widespread propaganda which included the distribution of pamphlets and newspaper articles which stated that Napoleon was a usurper to the French throne who had murdered the rightful monarchs of other European states. In addition, it was stated that Napoleon was an invader of free nations whose aim was to ensure that Britain was brought under his control. The British population was of the belief that their country was about to be invaded by Napoleon worked in the increasing of the negative public opinion of him. However, the dread of Napoleon’s invasion of Britain was not apparent, especially when one considers the fact that during the peace of Amiens, he allowed tourists from Britain to flock to France. These tourists showed a grudging admiration and fascination for the achievements of Napoleon in France, which were quite considerable when compared to his contemporaries. Even after his defeat at Waterloo, when Napoleon was shipped to British waters, it is stated that a large number of small vessels approached the ship in which he was being held so that they could catch a glance of the man who many feared yet admired in equal measure. Napoleon was so popular that people travelled from far in Britain to see him, and this was a cause for panic for the British government, which feared that Napoleon’s popularity would influence a popular uprising within Britain itself. This is the reason why he was exiled on St. Helena Island, far from Britain, because he was considered a direct threat if he were to step on British soil.

The charisma of Napoleon is one of the factors which have contributed to the development of the Napoleonic myth. He is probably the only ruler in modern world history who, after being ousted from power and sent into exile, returned to his throne without a single shot being fired. When news of his returned reached the French, they immediately accepted it and their soldiers flocked to his banners in a show of support. The people cheered his return, looking upon it as a return to the peace and prosperity that they had enjoyed under his rule. The fact that the Bourbon king was quickly forgotten with the return of Napoleon is a testament of his charisma as well as the popularity that he enjoyed among the French people. The ability of Napoleon to move the masses can only be considered to be remarkable, because it showed just how much he was favoured by them. The return of Napoleon to Paris and his throne captivated the political and academic elites all over Europe because such an event had never happened before, thus totally unexpected.

During the period of the romantic poets, the fascination over Napoleon and his legacy was still at its peak, with the man’s achievements being so diverse that they created a wide array of myths that bred confusion concerning him. Romantic poets like Hugo, for example, were extremely influenced by the Napoleonic myth especially when one considers that he was born in the period under Napoleon’s rule. In addition, Hugo’s father was a general under Napoleon and he taught his son to have immense reverence and admiration for Napoleon; an admiration which Hugo carried all his life and which he often compared to that of Napoleon III, whom he considered to be a pale shadow of his glorious uncle. Among the most enduring aspects of the Napoleonic legacy were the wars which he fought in order to achieve a united Europe under French dominion. Where Louis XIV had failed, Napoleon succeeded because he managed to bring most of Europe under French rule and to spread the seed of the revolution over the borders of France to other European nations. Because of his achievements, the period under Napoleon’s rule was considered by the romantic poets to be the greatest in French history since he had led the country not only to greatness but also to almost uninterrupted peace and prosperity. The leadership ability of Napoleon was often praised in French romantic poetry and this also played a role in the further development of the Napoleonic myth to what it is in the current age. The myth of Napoleon’s political genius was often stated through his actions after he decided to get directly involved in the government of France. He made popular political marriage to one of the most famous women in France at the time, Josephine de Beauharnais, which further enhanced Napoleon’s image as the national hero. A few years after this, Napoleon was able to gain power in France, in the period which came to be known as the consulate. His political genius then came into play as he had the constitution revised, making him the most powerful man in the country, and with this new power, he was able to have the authority to appoint all the people who were to occupy strategic positions. With Napoleon’s rise to power, it can be said that while the French Revolution officially came to an end, his actions showed that he was indeed a child of the revolution. He swiftly reformed all the crucial sectors in the government, making them more efficient than they had ever been before. Reforms were carried out in such sectors as the economy, the judicial system, as well as the education system.

Napoleon’s greatness was further seen when he restored those basic freedoms which the French people had been denied. One of these freedoms was the freedom of religion, which Napoleon reinstated by inviting the Catholic Church back to France, but while this was the case, however, he did not give the Church the absolute authority it once had, and instead, its activities were placed under the supervision of the state. Very few people in the history of France during the age of the romantic poets had received the approval and admiration of the French people like had Napoleon. The fact that he was extremely popular with the French public, especially after the restoration of the empire under Napoleon III, the romantic writers wrote a great deal, not only because they admired him themselves, but also because of the fact that they were writing for an audience that was fairly pro-Napoleon and was nostalgic for the days of greatness that he had made possible for them. Even during the romantic age, there had been written many books and accounts concerning Napoleon and these were read widely by the learned elites in French society. The accounts of the life of Napoleon may have played a significant role in the characterisation of this man in the poems influenced by romanticism. The myths surrounding the life and achievements of Napoleon had a great deal of influence on the poetry that was written during the age of romanticism and this is because of the fact that they inspired the works of the romantic writers, who wrote all that was positive concerning the life of this man. In most of the works of the romantic writers, one will find that there is heavy criticism of the rulers that came after Napoleon and these were often compared unfavourably with him; this being in part a further development concerning the Napoleonic myth.

Napoleon was among the people who were most admired during the age of romanticism, not only as a leader of men, but also as a man devoted to his family. This admiration does not just stem from the fact that he is one of the greatest men to have ever lived in France, but it also came from the way he conducted himself throughout his life. For many French people, Napoleon was a unique man, who rose from extremely humble origins and became the emperor of France at its most powerful in history. His life was the subject of numerous literatures, with some writers supporting his deeds while others have condemned them. Despite these disagreements about Napoleon, one thing, which all writers agreed upon, was that he was indeed an extraordinary man. Most romantic poets considered Napoleon to have been one of the foremost, military general in world history. Within a few years after becoming the French emperor, he had brought most of continental Europe under his rule. Furthermore, he had created a unique system of government, the like of which had never been seen in Europe. To the romantic poets, the achievements of this man were far superior to those of his successors, none of whom proved to be as capable as he had been. It can therefore be said that the Napoleonic myth influenced romantic poets because it also included the sense of nostalgia for the time of Napoleon, which was the greatest in French history.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the people who I admire the most in the world, not only as a leader of men, but also as a man devoted to his family. This admiration does not just stem from the fact that he is one of the greatest men to have ever lived in the Western world, but it also comes from the way he conducted himself throughout his life. Napoleon was indeed a unique man, who rose from extremely humble origins and became the emperor of the most powerful nation in Europe at the time. His life has been the subject of numerous literatures, with some writers supporting his deeds while others have condemned them. Despite these disagreements about Napoleon, one thing, which all writers agree upon, is that he was indeed an extraordinary man. Most historians consider Napoleon to have been one of, if not the foremost, military general in world history. Within a few years after becoming the French emperor, he had brought most of continental Europe under his rule. Furthermore, he had created a unique system of government, the like of which had never been seen in Europe. For the first time in the years after the French Revolution, the Catholic Church returned to France under his guidance. In addition, Napoleon was a man unique in his time because of the immense love he had for his family. He was also a man who was not afraid to take any path to satisfy his ambitions. It is because of all these distinctiveness and a lot more, which make him the person I have a high regard for.

Napoleon was born in the town of Ajaccio in Corsica, in 1769, to a local Corsican minor nobleman, and his birth coincided with the time when the French were trying to enforce their rule on Corsica, an island which had recently been ceded to them by an Italian ruler. Napoleon was born just a year after the French had acquired Corsica, and this occurrence ensured that he was born a French national. This ensured that while he was growing up, he did not share the same resentment as older Corsicans did towards what was locally termed as a French occupation. Instead, napoleon grew up with a great admiration for the French, something which would eventually guide him towards the path of becoming their ruler. Because his father had collaborated with the French from the early days of the occupation, he was given a particularly powerful position in the government of Ajaccio. This ensured that his family remained well off, and because of the influence his office carried, two of his sons, Joseph and Napoleon, were sent to the prestigious College d’Autun in France, where they were to be educated. It is thus that Napoleon came to France for the first time; little knowing that he would one day come to rule this country. His father passed away while he was still at a military college, and he was forced to act as the head of his family, despite his being a younger son. This was because his older brother, Joseph, was exceedingly incompetent and tended not to take his responsibilities seriously. This is one of the characteristics displayed by Napoleon that are most admirable. He was not afraid to take up responsibility, no matter how hard they seemed to be at first.

It was soon after he left the military college that he and his family permanently relocated to France, where Napoleon’s career would begin in earnest. For a person so young, he showed his ambitions early by joining a political group soon after relocating to France. Furthermore, he took up military service in the French army which was based in Nice. The tumultuous events, which were taking place in France during this time, gave Napoleon the opportunity to satisfy his ambitions. He got his first successful break when he saved the government of the time from a coup attempt by a rival group. This act ensured that he got the attention of the committee which ruled France at the time, who promoted him to the position of commander in the army. His new found influence earned him the command of the French army in Italy; a position, which he had coveted. This is where his martial ability came to be exhibited for the first time. When he was given command, he found the men to be disgruntled and underfed. His charismatic nature and organizational and military brilliance soon changed that as this became the best wing of the French military. Not only was there a complete turnaround in the men’s morale, Napoleon managed to gain victories over the Austrians which were crucial to the French cause. These actions vastly enhanced his image in France, and when he returned, he was a national hero. With his return to France, Napoleon truly started his political career.

This man’s political genius can be seen through his actions after his return to France from the war in Italy. He made what one could term a political marriage to one of the most famous women in France at the time, Josephine de Beauharnais. This turned out to be a tremendously popular marriage in the country, and it further enhanced Napoleon’s image as the national hero. Within a few years, Napoleon came to gain power in France, as one of the three men who ruled the country. His political genius then came into play as he had the constitution revised, making him the most powerful man in the country. This new power enabled him to have the authority to appoint all the people who were to occupy strategic positions. With Napoleon’s rise to power, it can be said that the French Revolution officially came to an end. His actions show that he was indeed a child of the revolution, as he used to say. He swiftly reformed all the crucial sectors in the government, making them more efficient than they had ever been before. Reforms were carried out in such sectors as the economy, the judicial system, as well as the education system. Napoleon’s greatness can further be seen when he restored those basic freedoms which the French people had been denied. One of these freedoms was the freedom of religion, which Napoleon reinstated by inviting the Catholic Church back to France. However, he did not give the Church the absolute authority it once had, and instead, its activities were placed under the supervision of the state. This ensured that the Church did not abuse its powers as it had done previously.

One of the most admirable things about Napoleon is his dedication to his family. When he rose to greatness, he made sure that members of his family also shared in it. He was exceedingly generous to them, often giving his siblings powerful positions in his empire. In fact, all of his siblings, except one, became monarchs of various parts of the continent during his rule. Even Joseph, the brother who had abandoned his responsibility as the oldest son, was made a king of Spain. This just shows the true nature of Napoleon; he was a loving man who did not hold grudges. Napoleon had one known illegitimate son, Alexandre Walewski, whose mother was a Polish noblewoman. While many men in that period tended to ignore their illegitimate children, Napoleon recognized his son and took responsibility for him. This can be said to be an example of his loving and caring nature. Despite the many wars which took place under his rule, the French people did surprisingly well. Their government was for the first time highly efficient, and the bureaucracy whom Napoleon had put in place worked far better than previous governments. It is because of all these achievements, made by a man from such humble origins, that I consider Napoleon to be one of the greatest and most admirable, men in history.

Taboos and their relevance in society

Taboos have existed in all the cultures in the world for thousands of years and they can be considered to be as old as man has practiced culture. There exist taboos for a very wide range of things and all of these depend on the culture within which it is put in practice. Examples of these are food taboos, taboos on topics to discuss and which not to, sexual relations among many others. Different cultures have different taboos which are strictly observed and it is indeed a very rare thing for a person to break the taboos of the culture within which one was raised. The taboos of various cultures are mostly linked to the environment within which they live, the influences from other cultures, and most of all, from their history. These taboos are learned by the people who practice these cultures from a very young age and in fact, they are learned at almost the same time as they learn their language. Taboos therefore become a part of a person’s state of mind and it is an integral part of their growing up process and due to this, it remains with them for the rest of their lives. In some cultures, if a person breaks a taboo, punishment can be very severe and these tend to be shunned by the rest of their society and at times even banished or killed. Taboos are an important part of our culture and even if they are discarded by people who practice them, it is inevitable that other taboos will come up to replace the discarded ones.

It has been said that incest and patricide are the most universal taboos and that these are the basis upon which human societies are founded. Although these and many other taboos are universal in a majority of cultures and societies, it has been found that no taboo is completely universal and that there are exceptions in certain societies. The most common taboos in many societies are restrictions against killing fellow human beings, sexual relationships such s incest and bestiality, the killing of unborn children, cannibalism and the most common of all, dietary laws. Taboos have also come to affect language because every society has certain words which are deemed inappropriate to talk about and those who use such words are often looked upon with disapproval. This has resulted in people using euphemisms and other words to replace taboo words in their speech. Taboos serve many functions and they have a tendency of remaining in effect in their respective cultures long after the original reason for their enforcement has been forgotten by those who practice them. It has been argued that taboos can be used to reveal the history of those societies which have no existing written records and many have tried to relate taboos to the ecologic and economic conditions which prevail in those societies which practice them. These attempts have rarely achieved any meaningful results because it is very difficult to determine the origin of a taboo when even those who practice it do not know anything about it. The result of this is that all conclusions end up to be just mere speculation because there are no facts to them up.

The rise of rationalism and the sciences have reduced the power of many taboos in modern cultures and today, it is a very common thing for people to discuss subjects such as sexuality which were previously considered to be taboo. The increased understanding brought about by rationalism has made certain medical disorders which had been previously considered to be taboo to be treated more analytically and this has ensured that such conditions are well managed and that those affected live a normal life. However, this change in the perception of old taboos is also very ripe ground for the breeding of new taboos. The end of such things as slavery, the prohibition of alcohol, and the acceptance of homosexual relationships have forced many to employ euphemisms which are politically correct. This has been done to ensure that all forms of open discrimination through language are avoided although this has at times proven to be unsuccessful. Modern culture has also raised a great debate on the previously taboo subject of incest with some seeking for the normalization of all consensual adult relationships despite the degree of blood relationship while others have made it harder for such things to happen by setting up laws restricting such relationships. New taboos have come up today due to the fact that many societies feel the need to remedy the effect that injustice has had on modern society such as neocolonialism. Taboos have been established when discussing such matters as race, ethnicity, and even nationalism because these are perceived to be very sensitive issues which should be carefully handled to avoid conflict between the concerned parties.

The history of taboos in the West is quite a long one and as a conclusion, we shall look at some examples of these. In Ancient Greece, adultery was a very serious taboo whose punishment if caught, was death either through starvation or by being dragged to death by horses. In medieval Europe, sex was not considered to be for pleasure and instead, it was only reserved for procreation; this meant that premarital sex was a criminal offense which was often punishable by death. Homosexual activity of any kind in medieval Europe was looked down upon and those caught were either heavily fined or imprisoned. It was taboo, especially in the North American colonies until recently, for there to be marriages between people from different races and laws were put in place to enforce this taboo. In the modern world, the mainstream society has tended to discriminate against those who undergo sex change operations and this is still a very controversial topic to this day. These people have become a new taboo in the society and it will likely be a very long time before they come to be accepted by the mainstream. 

Were Atrocities Committed in Vietnam?

The United States throughout its history has gone to war starting with its war of independence until most recently, the war in Iraq and Afghanistan. In most of the wars that it has been involved in, there have been claims that the United States military has committed atrocities against the civilian populations of the countries it has invaded. The reports of such atrocities have been reported during the following instances: the Philippine-American war; the Second World War; the Korean War; the Vietnam War; in Yugoslavia in 1999; and finally, during the War on Terror. In this paper, we shall discuss some American atrocities committed during the Vietnam War with specific emphasis on the crimes committed against the noncombat civilian population within Vietnam.

Atrocities such as the killing of noncombat civilians or the torture of prisoners occur in all wars but that it became a particular issue in the Vietnam War. Violence against the civilians of Vietnam by the American military was an intentional act of war and they acted with indifference to the destruction of noncombatants and to that of their property. Most of the military commanders of the United States were aware of the laws governing ground warfare that had been established by various international agreements but atrocities were still committed by some American soldiers and officers. Throughout the entire war, only two hundred and seventy eight soldiers and marines were convicted of murder, rape, and other violent crimes by the military justice system but many more incidents went unpunished or were not even reported. The policy of heavy bombing by in South Vietnam with high explosives and napalm by American forces to support ground operations in and around villages and the widespread use of artillery for the same purpose generated many accidental civilian casualties.

The United States military used herbicides and defoliants as part of its herbicidal warfare in Vietnam, and one of these, known as Agent Orange, was used extensively from 1961 to 1971 in South Vietnam and in portions of North Vietnam. At the time the herbicides were being used, there was little consideration within the American military about the potential long term effects of the widespread use of Agent Orange towards the Vietnamese population. It is further unclear exactly where in Vietnam the Agent Orange herbicides were sprayed and the amount sprayed at each location and this has ensured that virtually every aspect of the effects of this herbicide in Vietnam is infused with uncertainty. These herbicides were used on the crops of the Vietnamese civilians so that the crops could die causing mass starvation. The American army commanders mistakenly believed that starvation would force the Vietnamese population to support the American backed South Vietnamese regime but this turned out to be counterproductive because instead the people lost all confidence in the southern government and secretly supported the North. Another major result of the use of these herbicides was the mass starvation that occurred after their use and a lot of the civilian population, which had nothing to do with the war, died in the resulting famine.

It was the fear, anger, and incentive for promotion or commendation for a high body count (which was a requirement by the military at the time) that led the American soldiers to an over application of their weaponry which constituted atrocities against the civilian population. Individual Vietnamese and sometimes even entire villages could be killed because they were suspected of being the enemy or in certain incidents; they were simply killed just because they got in the way. The Vietnam war, with its tactical use of high altitude bombing and artillery fire, and the search and destroy missions resulted in mass killings. These weapons were used indiscriminately by the American military and in the process many civilians were killed accidentally. The number of these accidental killings may border in the tens of thousands because there were no statistics, whether private or official, at the time to show their extent. Furthermore, while platoons were on missions, their leaders rarely restrained them from committing such acts as would be deemed atrocities in normal human societies. One of the major and most notable of these incidents, due to the high media attention it gained, was the My Lai massacre of 1968.

The My Lai massacre in Vietnam was the mass murder of between three hundred and five hundred Vietnamese civilians in the village of Son My by American soldiers during the Vietnam War. Most of the victims of this massacre were women, children and the elderly and when investigations were carried out, some of the bodies were found to have been mutilated and many of the women had been raped preceding the killings. When news of this massacre first came to light, the army tried to deflect any concern about it by blaming it on the South Vietnamese military. This incident prompted global outrage when it became public and it increase the domestic opposition for the United State’s involvement in Vietnam. The My Lai massacre had numerous complex causes which included psychological stress on the soldiers, poor unit leadership, bad intelligence, and an overall American strategy that put more emphasis on killing than on protecting the people. The American strategy of having body counts to show their progress in their progress in the war was very detrimental to the lives of the Vietnamese civilians because they could not be differentiated from the North Vietnamese soldiers who also wore peasant clothing. This led to the American soldiers’ killing of random Vietnamese civilians on suspicion that they were enemy forces. Some soldiers, bent on having a higher body count in order to establish their reputations within the military ranks, wantonly killed Vietnamese civilians in order to raise their counts.

By its nature, atrocity defies rationality, marking the limits of understanding and he uses this to explain what happened in Vietnam. The order to kill anything that moves caused many American soldiers to commit vast and unthinkable atrocities in Vietnam. American platoons had a tendency of waylaying civilians, raping the women among them, and at times murdered them in cold blood. In certain instances, if the American soldiers did not find anybody to fight in the various villages across the countryside of Vietnam, they would instead indulge themselves by raping, torturing, and murdering the hundreds of civilians living within such villages. Most of these cases went unreported because the people of Vietnam at the time did not have did not have any legal authority they could turn to for justice because they were in the middle of a war and furthermore, the government which claimed to represent them (South Vietnam) had allied itself with a foreign power in order to maintain its authority. In fact, the South Vietnamese government actively supported the American involvement in Vietnam despite the fact that atrocities were being committed against its civilian population.

America committed genocide in Vietnam and admits that individual atrocities and war crimes did occur in that country. One would agree with Sevy’s opinion because of the statistics showing the American military casualties of the war. It is said that about fifty eight thousand United States soldiers died in the Vietnamese war and this was despite their having a weapons technology that was far superior to that of their opponents. Now that it has been determined that the Americans had superior weapons, we should now the casualties in the Vietnamese side. If the American lost nearly sixty thousand soldiers despite their superior weapons, it is only logical to assume that the Vietnamese lost many times more that number in armed forces and that would be without counting the civilian casualties of this war. The random killings that were committed by all the armed forces involved in this conflict may put the number of civilian casualties in the millions. It is my suggestion that if the Americans had not involved themselves in the war in the first place, then it would have come to a swift end much sooner than it did.

The American atrocities in Vietnam are real and that they happened on a much grander scale than have been reported. It is up to the United States government to recognize and acknowledge these atrocities and not only do so, but also apologize to the people of Vietnam for committing them. If the American government would do this, then there would definitely be an improvement in the relations between America and Vietnam which would bring them even closer than they are today. Furthermore, America would earn global respect for owning up to its failures and because of this new found respect; America would be able to retain its hegemony over the world with the good will of all the nations of the world. This would be to its advantage especially considering that new world powers, such as China, Russia, and Brazil, are rising to challenge America’s authority as the only world superpower.