The Influence of the Myth of Napoleon and the Napoleonic years on the Development of Romanticism

The myth of Napoleon has been found to have played a significant role in the development of the second wave of French romantic poetry. Such poets as Hugo and Musset were greatly influenced by the events that were considered to have been irrevocably tied to Napoleon, and it is to these myths that some of their greatest works can be attributed. While this may be the fact, the outside world seems to know very little concerning this remarkable man who is often considered to have been the villain in the stories concerning him outside of France itself. In Britain, for example, the fact that Napoleon was considered an enemy of the British civilisation has continued to be the view in the current world and this has affected the way that they view the French ruler. It is said that he was short in stature and that because of his height; he felt that everyone looked down on him, making him want to achieve greatness in compensation. Despite the stereotypes that have developed concerning Napoleon in some countries, the fact remains that he was the greatest ruler that France had ever had since Charlemagne.

One myth that has often been propagated concerning Napoleon was his height, which many stated that was quite short. This myth has turned out not to be true and this has been mainly because of the fact that he was 5’7”, which was about the average height of a Frenchman in the nineteenth century. In addition, Napoleon was a genuine believer in a united Europe which united all the European peoples under one state, despite their nationalities and ethnicities, so that there could be lasting peace between them. During this period, it was the British, not Napoleon, who did not want a peaceful settlement to the dispute concerning the dominion of the French empire over Europe, because the French empire was believed to be a potential threat to the prosperity of British trade and security both on land and at sea. An example of the reluctance of the British to reach a peaceful settlement with Napoleon was seen through the British breaking the treaty of Amiens, which resulted in war. In the resultant war, Napoleon only went to war because he wanted to retain his crown and not because he was in any way antagonistic towards the British. It is a fact that unlike other rulers in Europe who after defeat could still simply remains in power, this was not the case with Napoleon and this was because he was considered by the other rulers in Europe to be an upstart, who had taken the crown that legitimately belonged to the Bourbons. Thus, Napoleon could not afford to lose a fight because if he did, then all would be lost for him, an example of this being when in 1812, rumours spread that he had been killed in the Russian campaign, the British worked towards the restoration of the Bourbons, overlooking Napoleon’s son’s claim to the throne.

The romantic poets garnered their inspiration from Napoleon, whom they praised considerably in their works while comparing him to his less liked nephew, Napoleon III, who was the French emperor at the time. The image of Napoleon as a hero was not reflected in countries outside France, especially Britain, where the government worked tirelessly to ensure that the reputation of Napoleon was damaged beyond repair. There was the use of widespread propaganda which included the distribution of pamphlets and newspaper articles which stated that Napoleon was a usurper to the French throne who had murdered the rightful monarchs of other European states. In addition, it was stated that Napoleon was an invader of free nations whose aim was to ensure that Britain was brought under his control. The British population was of the belief that their country was about to be invaded by Napoleon worked in the increasing of the negative public opinion of him. However, the dread of Napoleon’s invasion of Britain was not apparent, especially when one considers the fact that during the peace of Amiens, he allowed tourists from Britain to flock to France. These tourists showed a grudging admiration and fascination for the achievements of Napoleon in France, which were quite considerable when compared to his contemporaries. Even after his defeat at Waterloo, when Napoleon was shipped to British waters, it is stated that a large number of small vessels approached the ship in which he was being held so that they could catch a glance of the man who many feared yet admired in equal measure. Napoleon was so popular that people travelled from far in Britain to see him, and this was a cause for panic for the British government, which feared that Napoleon’s popularity would influence a popular uprising within Britain itself. This is the reason why he was exiled on St. Helena Island, far from Britain, because he was considered a direct threat if he were to step on British soil.

The charisma of Napoleon is one of the factors which have contributed to the development of the Napoleonic myth. He is probably the only ruler in modern world history who, after being ousted from power and sent into exile, returned to his throne without a single shot being fired. When news of his returned reached the French, they immediately accepted it and their soldiers flocked to his banners in a show of support. The people cheered his return, looking upon it as a return to the peace and prosperity that they had enjoyed under his rule. The fact that the Bourbon king was quickly forgotten with the return of Napoleon is a testament of his charisma as well as the popularity that he enjoyed among the French people. The ability of Napoleon to move the masses can only be considered to be remarkable, because it showed just how much he was favoured by them. The return of Napoleon to Paris and his throne captivated the political and academic elites all over Europe because such an event had never happened before, thus totally unexpected.

During the period of the romantic poets, the fascination over Napoleon and his legacy was still at its peak, with the man’s achievements being so diverse that they created a wide array of myths that bred confusion concerning him. Romantic poets like Hugo, for example, were extremely influenced by the Napoleonic myth especially when one considers that he was born in the period under Napoleon’s rule. In addition, Hugo’s father was a general under Napoleon and he taught his son to have immense reverence and admiration for Napoleon; an admiration which Hugo carried all his life and which he often compared to that of Napoleon III, whom he considered to be a pale shadow of his glorious uncle. Among the most enduring aspects of the Napoleonic legacy were the wars which he fought in order to achieve a united Europe under French dominion. Where Louis XIV had failed, Napoleon succeeded because he managed to bring most of Europe under French rule and to spread the seed of the revolution over the borders of France to other European nations. Because of his achievements, the period under Napoleon’s rule was considered by the romantic poets to be the greatest in French history since he had led the country not only to greatness but also to almost uninterrupted peace and prosperity. The leadership ability of Napoleon was often praised in French romantic poetry and this also played a role in the further development of the Napoleonic myth to what it is in the current age. The myth of Napoleon’s political genius was often stated through his actions after he decided to get directly involved in the government of France. He made popular political marriage to one of the most famous women in France at the time, Josephine de Beauharnais, which further enhanced Napoleon’s image as the national hero. A few years after this, Napoleon was able to gain power in France, in the period which came to be known as the consulate. His political genius then came into play as he had the constitution revised, making him the most powerful man in the country, and with this new power, he was able to have the authority to appoint all the people who were to occupy strategic positions. With Napoleon’s rise to power, it can be said that while the French Revolution officially came to an end, his actions showed that he was indeed a child of the revolution. He swiftly reformed all the crucial sectors in the government, making them more efficient than they had ever been before. Reforms were carried out in such sectors as the economy, the judicial system, as well as the education system.

Napoleon’s greatness was further seen when he restored those basic freedoms which the French people had been denied. One of these freedoms was the freedom of religion, which Napoleon reinstated by inviting the Catholic Church back to France, but while this was the case, however, he did not give the Church the absolute authority it once had, and instead, its activities were placed under the supervision of the state. Very few people in the history of France during the age of the romantic poets had received the approval and admiration of the French people like had Napoleon. The fact that he was extremely popular with the French public, especially after the restoration of the empire under Napoleon III, the romantic writers wrote a great deal, not only because they admired him themselves, but also because of the fact that they were writing for an audience that was fairly pro-Napoleon and was nostalgic for the days of greatness that he had made possible for them. Even during the romantic age, there had been written many books and accounts concerning Napoleon and these were read widely by the learned elites in French society. The accounts of the life of Napoleon may have played a significant role in the characterisation of this man in the poems influenced by romanticism. The myths surrounding the life and achievements of Napoleon had a great deal of influence on the poetry that was written during the age of romanticism and this is because of the fact that they inspired the works of the romantic writers, who wrote all that was positive concerning the life of this man. In most of the works of the romantic writers, one will find that there is heavy criticism of the rulers that came after Napoleon and these were often compared unfavourably with him; this being in part a further development concerning the Napoleonic myth.

Napoleon was among the people who were most admired during the age of romanticism, not only as a leader of men, but also as a man devoted to his family. This admiration does not just stem from the fact that he is one of the greatest men to have ever lived in France, but it also came from the way he conducted himself throughout his life. For many French people, Napoleon was a unique man, who rose from extremely humble origins and became the emperor of France at its most powerful in history. His life was the subject of numerous literatures, with some writers supporting his deeds while others have condemned them. Despite these disagreements about Napoleon, one thing, which all writers agreed upon, was that he was indeed an extraordinary man. Most romantic poets considered Napoleon to have been one of the foremost, military general in world history. Within a few years after becoming the French emperor, he had brought most of continental Europe under his rule. Furthermore, he had created a unique system of government, the like of which had never been seen in Europe. To the romantic poets, the achievements of this man were far superior to those of his successors, none of whom proved to be as capable as he had been. It can therefore be said that the Napoleonic myth influenced romantic poets because it also included the sense of nostalgia for the time of Napoleon, which was the greatest in French history.

Taboos and their relevance in society

Taboos have existed in all the cultures in the world for thousands of years and they can be considered to be as old as man has practiced culture. There exist taboos for a very wide range of things and all of these depend on the culture within which it is put in practice. Examples of these are food taboos, taboos on topics to discuss and which not to, sexual relations among many others. Different cultures have different taboos which are strictly observed and it is indeed a very rare thing for a person to break the taboos of the culture within which one was raised. The taboos of various cultures are mostly linked to the environment within which they live, the influences from other cultures, and most of all, from their history. These taboos are learned by the people who practice these cultures from a very young age and in fact, they are learned at almost the same time as they learn their language. Taboos therefore become a part of a person’s state of mind and it is an integral part of their growing up process and due to this, it remains with them for the rest of their lives. In some cultures, if a person breaks a taboo, punishment can be very severe and these tend to be shunned by the rest of their society and at times even banished or killed. Taboos are an important part of our culture and even if they are discarded by people who practice them, it is inevitable that other taboos will come up to replace the discarded ones.

It has been said that incest and patricide are the most universal taboos and that these are the basis upon which human societies are founded. Although these and many other taboos are universal in a majority of cultures and societies, it has been found that no taboo is completely universal and that there are exceptions in certain societies. The most common taboos in many societies are restrictions against killing fellow human beings, sexual relationships such s incest and bestiality, the killing of unborn children, cannibalism and the most common of all, dietary laws. Taboos have also come to affect language because every society has certain words which are deemed inappropriate to talk about and those who use such words are often looked upon with disapproval. This has resulted in people using euphemisms and other words to replace taboo words in their speech. Taboos serve many functions and they have a tendency of remaining in effect in their respective cultures long after the original reason for their enforcement has been forgotten by those who practice them. It has been argued that taboos can be used to reveal the history of those societies which have no existing written records and many have tried to relate taboos to the ecologic and economic conditions which prevail in those societies which practice them. These attempts have rarely achieved any meaningful results because it is very difficult to determine the origin of a taboo when even those who practice it do not know anything about it. The result of this is that all conclusions end up to be just mere speculation because there are no facts to them up.

The rise of rationalism and the sciences have reduced the power of many taboos in modern cultures and today, it is a very common thing for people to discuss subjects such as sexuality which were previously considered to be taboo. The increased understanding brought about by rationalism has made certain medical disorders which had been previously considered to be taboo to be treated more analytically and this has ensured that such conditions are well managed and that those affected live a normal life. However, this change in the perception of old taboos is also very ripe ground for the breeding of new taboos. The end of such things as slavery, the prohibition of alcohol, and the acceptance of homosexual relationships have forced many to employ euphemisms which are politically correct. This has been done to ensure that all forms of open discrimination through language are avoided although this has at times proven to be unsuccessful. Modern culture has also raised a great debate on the previously taboo subject of incest with some seeking for the normalization of all consensual adult relationships despite the degree of blood relationship while others have made it harder for such things to happen by setting up laws restricting such relationships. New taboos have come up today due to the fact that many societies feel the need to remedy the effect that injustice has had on modern society such as neocolonialism. Taboos have been established when discussing such matters as race, ethnicity, and even nationalism because these are perceived to be very sensitive issues which should be carefully handled to avoid conflict between the concerned parties.

The history of taboos in the West is quite a long one and as a conclusion, we shall look at some examples of these. In Ancient Greece, adultery was a very serious taboo whose punishment if caught, was death either through starvation or by being dragged to death by horses. In medieval Europe, sex was not considered to be for pleasure and instead, it was only reserved for procreation; this meant that premarital sex was a criminal offense which was often punishable by death. Homosexual activity of any kind in medieval Europe was looked down upon and those caught were either heavily fined or imprisoned. It was taboo, especially in the North American colonies until recently, for there to be marriages between people from different races and laws were put in place to enforce this taboo. In the modern world, the mainstream society has tended to discriminate against those who undergo sex change operations and this is still a very controversial topic to this day. These people have become a new taboo in the society and it will likely be a very long time before they come to be accepted by the mainstream. 

The Shaping of Gender Roles

Gender roles have existed for almost as long as the human race has existed and it is quite possible that they will continue to exist in the foreseeable future. They are a part of our daily lives and is manifested within the society by observable factors such as how one behaves or appears. They are patterns of feelings deemed appropriate or inappropriate because of one’s gender and they derive from the social expectations of how members of the different genders should behave. For example, if a person considers themselves to be female, then she would be expected to display the characteristics which are typically associated with being female, such as being gentle, dependent and expressive of their feelings. There are various factors that are used to determine the gender roles in society and the most important of these are biological, social, and cultural factors.

The biological make up of an individual in society has long been used to determine how that person should behave. However, there is yet to be proof of the fact that whether one is male or female, he or she is born with the innate knowledge of the characteristics that are often ascribed to their gender. In fact, those who support the idea that biology determines gender roles cannot explain how or why some males become very emotional and cry in situations where they are expected to be strong and unemotional. This helps to show that biology does is not necessarily a determining factor in gender roles.

The society plays a major role in determining the gender roles of the individuals within it. These individuals learn about their roles in society through their interactions with their family members, their socializing with their teachers and friends at school, and through the influence of mass media. The parents of a large number of people in society determine the gender roles of their children and rigidly enforce them. Therefore, these individuals grow up knowing the roles which are expected of their gender and are not allowed to choose for themselves because of the set societal norms.

Culture is another major factor that determines the gender roles of individuals in the societies within which they live. There are many different cultures around the world and each has its own expectations about what roles the members of each sex should undertake. While in most Western societies the male is expected to be dominant in society, in other cultures such as in some Asian communities, women are very powerful players within the society and major decisions cannot be made without consulting them.

The various roles that are ascribed to the various genders are mostly determined by the society within which one lives and by its culture. Biology only acts as a marker to determine how the society is going to socialize an individual to behave and it is not in itself a definer of gender roles. Within the modern world, gender roles are starting to become insignificant because it has been proven that women can take up the roles traditionally reserved for men with the same efficiency and the reverse has also been proven to be true. The gender roles are today slowly becoming blurred and they may cease to exist altogether in future.

The Role of Art in Making Political Statements

Art has, for a lengthy time, been used to make political statements among the Rapanui. The art of the Rapanui, in particular the statues of Moai, are the last part of the ancient history of these people and because of this, they still have a special impact on then Rapanui. When the Spanish colonized the Easter Islands, they discovered the importance of these statues to the Rapanui and in order to make a political statement, these giant statues were toppled from their pedestals, to show that the Spanish were dominant on the islands. While this may have been the case, these statues have come to be recognized as a unique part of the Rapanui heritage and attempts have been made by the Chilean government, which governs the islands, to restore them. The Rapanui have made these statues their rallying point when agitating for political independence from Chile, which they consider to be an oppressive colonizer.

A similar political statement was made in the past by the English in a bid to establish their dominance over the Scottish people. The English, after defeating the Scots in battle, took the important Stone of Scone, which was an essential part of the Scottish coronation ritual, from Scotland to England. This was used as a symbol of English dominance of the Scots, but in this instance it does not seem to have worked since Scotland came to regain its independence later. In essence, art and objects of power have been used throughout history either as rallying points for political causes, or as means to dominate people who hold them in high regard.

Milton Friedman on CSR

One of the most fundamental views proposed by Milton Friedman is that a business manager has to make sure that profits are maximized. This is supposed to be conducted in such a way that promotes the objectives of shareholders. These views, while quite important for the achievement of business goals, have been criticized because of the belief that Friedman basically aims at narrowing the moral attitude of a business manager to concentrate on profit maximization instead of applying the virtues of management practices. In this paper, there will be an analysis of the criticisms leveled at Friedman and the manner through which his stance can be defended.

One of the criticisms leveled at Friedman’s stance is that it promotes the idea that profit should be the motivating factor of business managers. An argument that has been made in response to this stance is that managers should always seek to make sure that they are able to advance the ideals and ideas affecting their enterprises rather than seeking to achieve profits (Wight & Calkins, 2008). Profit maximization does not necessarily account for the motivation of the manager towards the achievement of business objectives. Instead, it promotes a situation where there is a drive towards profit maximization without considering the consequences of their actions. Under such circumstances, the manager does not have the behavioral motivation aimed at not only promoting the interests of the business, but also those of the people that contribute to it; especially its stakeholders (Arrow, 1973). Another criticism that has been made concerning Friedman’s stance is that it fails to consider that there are a number of motives, other than making profits, which inform the desire of individuals to participate in business. The achievement of a successful business is not just based on the making of profits, but also ensuring that there is the advancement of inspirational sentiments as well as the motivation that is brought about within the institution. A result of this situation is that it becomes possible for an organization to achieve success without concentrating only on profit making.

Another criticism of Friedman’s model is based on the fact that there are a large number of alternatives to it. Therefore, rather than being perfect, it is a model that essentially has a considerable number of alternatives that could work better than it. When it comes to entrepreneurship, managerial motivations are not necessarily the only determinants of the success of a business (Wight & Calkins, 2008). This is because success often involves a situation where there is the advancement of such ideas as risk taking and the desire to build the business in such a way that it is able to achieve its goals. The actualization of management objectives is fundamental in bringing about a successful business, but it cannot be the only motivation because without such input as risk taking and the protection of stakeholder interests, a business cannot hope to thrive. Moreover, there is also a need to develop means through which rivalries can be handled and this is in such a way that ensures that there is the creation of tactics that keep the business ahead of others (Arrow, 1973). This is especially the case where there is a need to make sure that the business is successful through keeping ahead of rivals, because staving off rivalries helps businesses come to terms with themselves, especially their strengths and weaknesses. Through such knowledge, they can work towards the improvement of products so that they can remain competitive. This is a situation, it is argued, that is not factored in by Friedman’s model.

Moreover, Friedman is also criticized for not factoring in the inspirational components of business practice. This is especially considering that while Friedman explains that motivated self-interest is an essential factor when among managers when it comes to maximization of profits. However, this factor can also end up being a mask for the greed that the managers have because profit alone as an aim can end up making managers make some very unethical decisions (Wight & Calkins, 2008). Therefore, under such circumstances, managers could end up promoting the corporate social responsibility (CSR) not because they are motivated to do so, but because they would likely to make sure that there is the advancement of the reputation of the business. This is especially considering that a manager could make use of corporate social responsibility as a mask for the organization so that it can end up aiding in an increase in productivity, customer loyalty, and finally, profitability. There is, under such circumstances, a failure to consider the ethical responsibility that the business has towards its stakeholders because managers only consider CSR as a means towards an end rather than as an end in itself (Arrow, 1973). Such a failure can end up being disastrous for a business because it only inspires profit making while not really caring about the welfare of stakeholders who actually make the contributions to its profits.

Despite the arguments above, there are cases where Friedman’s views can be defended. One of the most significant aspects of businesses is that they often undergo pressure from shareholders to make sure that they make profits. This is especially the case when it comes to meeting set profit targets because managers are often under considerable pressure to perform. Therefore, an organization ends up developing a culture of profit maximization using any of the means that are available to it. A result is that the business ends up being able to ensure that it undertakes those initiatives aimed at making it more successful through the advancement of profit making for the sake of securing the welfare of all its members. Moreover, it becomes possible to make sure that there is the advancement of means to ensure a positive outcome from its activities because without profits, organizations end up not being considered successful and are at risk of collapse. Friedman is therefore correct because he proposes that the making of profits should be the ultimate goal of any business and managers should be geared towards making this objective become a reality.

In conclusion, Milton Friedman has been criticized for promoting a model that pushes managers towards profit maximization. These criticisms are based on the argument that businesses should do more to ensure that they protect the interests of all stakeholders rather than only shareholders. While this ethical argument is pertinent, Friedman can be considered to be correct in his assumption that the main purpose of business is to promote the making of profit. Shareholders often hold managers responsible for making profits, meaning that it is essential for them to make sure that they make the businesses as profitable as possible through any means necessary, including the use of CSR.

References

Arrow, K. J. (1973). Social responsibility and economic efficiency. Public Policy, 21(3), 303-317.

Wight, J. B., & Calkins, M. (2008). The ethical lacunae in Friedman's concept of the manager. Journal of Markets and Morality, 11(2).

Advantages of a Multicultural Education System

Multicultural education is an emerging discipline whose main aim is to ensure equality in education among the people from different backgrounds, for example race, culture, and social class. The main aim of this new discipline is to equip these people with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable them to effectively function in a diverse society creating a community whose purpose will be for the common good of all its members. Multicultural education draws upon knowledge from more established disciplines such as ethnic studies and women studies and tends to challenge or reinterpret this knowledge. This knowledge is applied to the basic curriculum of multicultural education in respect to the values of diversity which is propagated by this discipline. Multicultural education means different things to different people and this has led to its complexity and since it has so many definitions teachers or instructors implement it in a variety of ways, based on their own understanding of this type of education. There are many reasons why teachers introduce multicultural education in their classrooms and these reasons are implemented to address the following issues: the development of ethnic and cultural literacy; the personal development of individual students especially those from underrepresented communities; the clarification of attitudes and values among students; and finally, the development of a multicultural social competence. It has been proven that education in a multicultural setting enhances teacher effectiveness and student achievement and this is evidence for the continuation and expansion of this field of education. In a country with such diverse backgrounds as the United States, it is very important for students to be taught to appreciate each other’s backgrounds and the best way to do this is to incorporate the literature from all these backgrounds into the education system.

The main reason for the use of multicultural literature in class is to get the students to appreciate each other’s culture in order to have a positive understanding and respect for each other, no matter their background. This encourages the positive development of common relationships, honesty and interest in the others’ culture. Multicultural books should also be used to engender racial pride in students and not to only create an appreciation of the culture of others. Literature affects how students look upon themselves and if some of these students are from a minority background for example, and the literature taught in class does not have any minority character as a hero, then this would lead to a low opinion of their own people, hence a low esteem of themselves.

There are many multicultural books that have come into the market and some of these are not the best type of literature to teach to a multicultural class. Teachers should therefore be very careful about the quality of multicultural literature that they introduce to their classes. Given the rising cost of books, teachers might be tempted to only get those books that are cheaper, not considering their quality, as long as it is a multicultural book. However, teachers should always do their best to ensure that their students get only the best quality of material for their classes, no matter their cost. Teachers should select books which do not display racism by modern standards and should avoid those classics which openly display racism as well as cultural hatred. They should not only select those books that portray minorities in a positive light, but they should also look at the language quality of each of the books they get because language is an essential part of how students receive the message that the book is attempting to convey. Most teachers have very little understanding of the kind of multicultural literature they should introduce in their classes and because of this, it would be best for them to carefully do their research before making any attempt to make a selection. The literature they choose should accurately and respectively show the images of the cultures (especially minority cultures) that they are meant to represent.

In books that have illustrations, these illustrations have to be examined by the teacher to make sure that they accurately represent the people from different races, whether they are white, black, Asian, or Indian, and these, should not be drawn as caricatures. It is best to select books which show the diversity that can be found within a specific race, while those books which only display the stereotypical characteristics of a certain race should be discarded. This will help to ensure that students learn to appreciate the diversity within each race and will prevent them from the vice of stereotyping, something which is never an accurate representation. Once a teacher has established that the illustrations are above reproach in terms of racial stereotyping, then the next step would be to assess the text within such a book. The text should also be able to display the fact that not everybody in a certain community live in poverty, or that they do not have their own thoughts. It should show the diversity and independence that can be found in every community without any of the racial prejudices which some texts tend to display. The text should also be checked to see whether the cultures of minority groups are treated with respect or whether they are considered to be inferior to that of the dominant white culture. On the other hand, the books should show an accurate description of minority cultures and these cultures should therefore not be overly romanticized to make them more appealing.

In conclusion, it can be said that the literature, the themes displayed within them, and the personal achievements of the characters within this literature are very important in enhancing the multicultural material in the classroom. They help in the development in racial pride especially among minority students as well as the appreciation of the culture of others. These materials not only provide an opportunity for the interaction of different cultures on an equal basis, but they also create opportunities for the students to learn about the diversity of their nation.

On Dependence on Communication Technology

Communication technology is one of the most important things in the world today, with most people using it in one form or the other. It enables use to transmit important information quickly and efficiently than was done previously. This technology had developed very quickly over the last few decades with new communication technologies and devices coming into the market everyday. Despite the numerous advantages that communication technology has to offer us, there have developed several related problems and the most significant of these is overdependence on this technology. In this paper, we shall discuss some of the aspects of dependence on communication technology and how they affect companies.

Many companies, especially the large ones, have become completely dependent on communication technology to do their day to day business. This technology has enabled them to be able to reach both their regular customers as well as potential customers. Furthermore, communication technology has enabled these companies to cheaply relay their information to a larger audience using all means of communication available to people across their market including social networks, mobile phones, and the internet, among others. The communication technologies being developed today are becoming more and cheaper as new means of communication and devices are being created. Companies are increasingly becoming dependent on communication technology because this technology is becoming more affordable and available to people who make up the potential market, something which was not possible only a few years ago, when technology was more expensive. This has the potential of encouraging these companies not to go out to the potential market to study it for more tangible information about their customers’ needs and may in the process lead to their production of products which are not viable in the market.

Another issue which can come up due to the dependence on communication technology is its vulnerability to sabotage for malicious purposes. The current communication technology is very open for attacks from hackers, rival companies, among others, whose aim is to either use the communication network to gain information on the company’s customers or to sabotage the operations of the company. It is therefore advisable for companies to not only choose communication technology which is cheaper but to also consider its security. Such companies should do their best to ensure that all their communication systems are secure and that regular checks are made to detect whether there have been any breaches in such systems. The modern communication systems are highly dependent on electrical power and any interruption of power supply would mean that no communication can be made. Furthermore, the dependence on communication technology should be minimized and only be used sparingly to ensure the security of their communication systems. More traditional ways of communicating with potential customers should be put in place so that these companies can better get to know exactly what their customers want as well as keep themselves secure from any breakdown of their communication network.

In conclusion, we have seen how cheap communication technology has not only helped companies to market their products widely, but has also led to the reduction of the quality of their products due to their not being able to directly make an assessment of their customers’ needs. Moreover, we have seen how communication technology can be vulnerable to attacks and sabotage from people with malicious intentions and why it is best to continue to use the more traditional methods of communication. It is therefore best for companies to carefully select their communication technologies to ensure efficiency.

Facts about the Theory of Demand

Demand is the economic theory that explains a consumer’s desire and readiness to pay a price for a precise good or service. Normally, the price of commodities and services increase as their demand dwindles while the price decreases when there is a high demand for them. According to Taylor and Weerapana (53), the term demand is a relationship between two economic variables namely: the price of a particular good; and the quantity of that good that consumers are willing to buy at the price during a specific time period. It describes how much of a good consumers will purchase at each price and it can be represented by a numerical table or by a graph. As the price of goods and services rise, the quantity demand by consumers goes down. Siddiqui (35) further describes demand as that effective desire which can be satisfied meaning that desires are simply imaginations. It is required that the demand commodity should be available at a certain place, time, and price. Demand must satisfy the following requirements; desire for the specific commodity; sufficient resources to purchase the desired commodity; willingness to spend the resources; and the availability of the commodity.

Demand can also be used to measure or predict the quantity of commodities and services which the buyers would be motivated to buy in a market at a given time and at a given place. The changes in the price of the commodities that are related to that which a consumer uses affects the market demand for it and an example of this would be the price of margarine (which the consumer does not normally use) is much lower than the price of butter (which the consumer normally uses). Inevitably, the consumer will decide to go for the cheaper product although their preference lies with the more expensive one. The demand for certain commodities may also be affected by the changes of the income of potential buyers, for example, if the income of a buyer is reduced, then he will opt to purchase cheaper commodities in line with his diminished income; but if the income is increased, then the buyer’s demand for the same product at higher prices will increase significantly. The future expectations of buyers almost always have a tendency of influencing the market demand of a product and this is usually displayed by considering the income security of potential buyers. If a potential buyer is confident in his belief that his future income will be stable, the he is more likely to spend more in buying both the commodities that he needs and wants. If however his future income is very insecure, then he is most likely to keep most of his money in savings in anticipation of a bleak financial future than spending it on commodities.

The demand schedule is a table that shows the quantity of demand of a good at the various price levels and it is a very important feature within the market because it helps to predict the future trends in the demand of commodities. In this way, given the price level, it is easy to determine the expected quantity demanded. A demand schedule is normally used alongside a supply schedule and these show the amount of certain goods that can be supplied to a market or markets at given price levels at various times and it is used to indicate that there is an inverse relationship between the price and the quantity demanded. Lipsey and Chrystal (40) state that a demand schedule is one way of showing the relationship between quantity demand and price. It is a numerical table that is used to show the quantity of goods that will be demanded at some selected prices.

Hoag and Hoag (59) state that the law of demand shows an inverse relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded of that good. When the value of a commodity goes in a certain direction, the amount of the equal commodity that is in demand goes in the opposite direction. As the price rises, less is purchased and this is indicated by the quantity demanded decreasing. There is a clear evidence of the law of demand at work in our daily lives. For example, when postage rates increase, then fewer Christmas cards are sent because the quantity demanded has fallen as the price has risen. When retail stores advertise sales, then these sales serve to increase the quantity demanded by lowering the price. The buyer response to higher fuel and energy prices will lead to smaller and more energy efficient cars, and in the homes, cooler temperatures and sweaters because there is a lower quantity demanded of energy at the higher price.

One reason why a consumer buys more of a good as the price falls is that the good becomes an attractive substitute for other goods and this encourages the consumer buys more of the good and consequently less of the other goods related to it. As the price of a good goes down, the consumer is able to purchase more of this good than he could before the price fell. Therefore, the consumer appears to have more income but this is not the case because it should be noted that the amount of money that the consumer actually has remains unchanged yet the purchasing power of the money increases as the price falls. The law of demand tells us that people have a tendency to respond to the price changes of given commodities and learning this would be helpful for a trader in fixing the prices of his commodities because he knows how much the demand for that particular commodity will fall if the price is raised beyond a certain level. The law of demand also helps the government in the setting of taxes on various commodities by analyzing the effects of taxes on the demand of these commodities in the market and adjusting the tax rates so that they may be more to the government’s advantage. It is also a very important factor in the planning of when and where to sell commodities due to their demand.

There are however some exceptions to the law of demand and an example of this is the inability of this law to explain why when the price of some goods increases, their demand also increase, and when their prices fall, then their demand decreases with this fall. A good example of such goods are precious stones and metals whose demand will continue to be high when their prices are high and the demand for them falls when their prices fall. A lot of people out of ignorance consider goods of cheaper prices to be of low quality and they buy it less, but when the prices of such commodities become high, then there is a tendency among these buyers to buy more of this commodity.

The law of demand further does not work when in anticipation for the rise of the price of goods; consumers begin to buy more of these goods even after there is an increase in the price of these goods in the present time. Similarly, if the prices are expected to fall in the foreseeable future, the consumers will buy less of these goods even if the costs of these commodities have become even lower in the present. Moreover, the law of demand does not work during the times of war or emergencies because if there are fears of a food shortage, then consumers will buy more food commodities for the purpose of hoarding and building stock. On the other hand, under certain situations, during an economic depression when prices are continuously falling, people tend to postpone their demand and thus buy less at lower prices.

In order to define marginal utility, we shall first define what utility is. Utility is the way defined by market participants of measuring gratification or contentment and how these relate to the decisions that people make while purchasing goods and it measures the advantages or disadvantages of consuming certain goods or services. Lipsey and Harbury (39) state that marginal utility is defined as the difference in utility arising from a change in the rate of consumption per period of time. Marginal utility is the added fulfillment that consumers gain from consuming additional units of commodities or services. It is an essential economic concept because the economists make use of it to determine how much of an item potential consumers will buy. The marginal utility is positive when the consumption of a bonus item increases the total utility while marginal utility is considered to be negative when the consumption of the bonus item decreases the total utility.

Mishra (20) defines the demand curve as the graphic illustration of a demand schedule depicting the relationship between the price of certain commodities and the amount of these commodities that buyers are able and willing to but at a given price. Demand curves are used to approximate the conducts in the market and these are often combined with supply curves to approximate the price at which sellers are willing to put up for sale the equivalent quantity of goods as buyers are willing to buy. The demand curve represents the highest quantities for every unit of time that consumers will take at various prices. The demand curve is used to show the relationships between the diverse quantities demanded at diverse prices.

There are various factors which affect the demand of commodities in the market and this is elaborated by Siddiqui (43) who states that an increase in the number of buyers will increase the demand for the good, for example, the demand for land increases as the population increases. An increase in the price of a commodity expected in future increases the demand in the present while a decrease in the same decreases the current demand. For example, when a good is temporarily put on sale, the people stock up on the good with the expectation that the good will no longer be in the market in the near future. Demand can shift due to the changes in taste over time, for example, the demand for breakfast cereal may possibly be very high in the morning but its demand may turn out to be very low at night. Furthermore, changes in quality also affect demand, for example, CDs cost more than cassettes because the music in CDs is of a higher quality than that in cassettes.

Siddiqui (52) states that elasticity of demand is a measure of the relative change in the amount purchased in response to any change in price or a given demand curve. Price elasticity deals with how sensitive the demand for a certain commodity is to a change in the products own price and in relation to this, there are several factors which determine the elasticity of a product or service and some of these include the following: the more the number of close substitutes for a good in the market, the more elastic is the demand for a product because consumers can more easily switch their demand if the price of one product changes relative to others in the market. Furthermore, there may be significant transaction costs involved in switching between different goods and services and in this case, demand tends to be inelastic, for example, cell phone service providers may decide to include fine sections in contracts or may insist on twelve month contracts being taken out. Goods and services that are considered by consumers to be necessities tend to have a more elastic demand because the said consumers can still survive without luxuries when their financial plans are stretched to their limits. Demand has a tendency to be more price elastic the longer consumers are allowed to respond to a price change by varying their purchasing decisions because it takes time for consumers to notice and to respond to price fluctuations.

References

Hoag, Arleen J & Hoag, John H. Introductory Economic. Singapore: World Scientific, 2006.

Lipsey, Richard G. Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Mishra, Sasmita. Engineering Economics and Costing. New Delhi, India: PHI Learning, 2009.

Siddiqui, S.A. Managerial Economics and Financial Analysis. New Delhi, India: New Age International, 2006.

Taylor, John B. & Weerapana, Akila. Economics. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning, 2007.

Face-to-face vs. Distance Learning

There are many advantages of the face-to-face learning system and some of these are dependent on the accessibility if the course instructors as well as the consistency if classes. Face-to-face leaning not only has the advantage of enabling students to develop a culture of teamwork, but it also enables them to actively participate in the lecture. Professors are able to directly influence their students by teaching them the ideas which are propagated by their various schools of thought. It is for these reasons that the following statement comes true:

Students who prefer the traditional format (face-to-face) do so for several reasons, but they most commonly cite a preference for the instructor presence and the learning advantage of face-to-face interactions.

(Daymont, 2011: 156)

There are various disadvantages of face-to-face learning despite the fact that it is still the most popular mode of learning. Some of these disadvantages stem from the need for there to be an instructor present in order for lectures to take place and this added to the cost of transport imposed on the students may limit their access to education. Although it is emphasized by many that face-to-face learning is preferable, it is still quite limited:

For example, the learning outcomes of students in a traditional face-to-face system may be considered to be better than those of students learning in a distance learning system but the latter has the advantage of permitting greater access to education.

(Henry, 1998:117)

The distance learning system has an advantage over the face-to-face system because it enables many people to have access to education at their own convenience. This system is currently used by adults who, because of their busy schedules, cannot attend lectures frequently and their best and fastest option is to do so online. It is to the advantage of these students for them to have distance learning that is easier for them to cope with:

Factors that predispose undergraduates towards taking online classes were examined and it was found that the risk factors for non-completion of their degree prefer distance education courses since distance educations courses provide students with more convenient and flexible class schedules.

(Moore and Kearsley, 2011:150)

The distance learning system also has some disadvantages which face-to-face learning does not. Distance learning does not require the presence of a professor or instructor and this leads to less interaction between them. Furthermore, it is very difficult for a student to gain a full understanding of what the instructor is saying because responses to queries take a very long time to get. A further disadvantage is that it is very hard for the students being taught a course through distance channels to develop the necessary skills that are needed for teamwork, an advantage that face-to-face learning has over distance learning. Research has shown that many students still prefer face-to-face learning to distance learning because they feel that it is a better way of getting instruction from their professors. A study undertaken on various distance learning students showed:

Surprisingly, more students would like to have more turns when interacting with the instructor and this seems to contradict their earlier assertion that they did not want to focus more on listening and speaking.

(Zi-Gang, 2012: 291)

Cited Works

Daymont, T. and Blau, G., 2011. Deciding Between Traditional and Online Formats: Exploring the Role of Learning Advantages, Flexibility, and Compensatory Adaptation. Journal Of Behavioral & Applied Management, 12 (2), pp.156-175, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 15 August 2012.

Henry, M., 1998. Using IT Effectively: A Guide To Technology In The Social Sciences. Oxon, United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis.

Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G., 2011. Distance Education: A Systems View of Online Learning. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning.

Zi-Gang, G., 2012. Cyber Asynchronous versus Blended Cyber Approach in Distance English Learning. Journal Of Educational Technology & Society, 15(2), pp.286-297.

The Negative Effects of Drugs

Drugs are very important in the treatment of the various health problems that occur within the human population. Although drugs are important, some tend to have some very serious side effects on the patients who use them. In this paper, we shall discuss two drugs which have a high risk of giving patients some serious side effects.

There is a high risk for Multiple Sclerosis patients who take the drug Ampyra. The majority of these seizures occur within days of starting the dosage especially among those patients who had no prior history of seizures and it is advised that patients who miss a dose should not take extra doses because doing so will increase the seizure risk. Patients should stop taking the drug right away if they develop any problems and should immediately contact their doctors for advice about what to do next. The healthcare professional should order his patients’ blood tests periodically to monitor the kidney functions of their Multiple Sclerosis patients in order to reduce the chances of a seizure due to the use of Ampyra.

Healthcare professionals are supposed to regulate the dosage of the antibacterial drug cefepime in patients with kidney impairment because there have been some cases of a specific type of seizure called non - conclusive status epilepticus associated with the use of cefepime especially among patients with kidney problems who did not receive appropriate dosage adjustments of the drug. To minimize the risk of seizures, healthcare professionals should adjust the dosage of cepefime in patients with creatinine clearance less than or equal to 60mL/min and if seizures associated with cefepime therapy occur, the discontinuation of the drug should be considered. It is advised that patients should get in touch with their doctors if they have any inquiries or apprehensions about cefepime.

Cited Works

Food and Drug Administration. “FDA Drug Safety Communication: Cefepime and risk of seizure in patients not receiving dosage adjustments for kidney impairment.” Web 29 July, 2012 <www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm30966.htm>

Food and Drug Administration. “FDA Drug Safety Communication: Seizure risk for multiple sclerosis patients who take Ampyra (dalfampridine).” Web 29 July, 2012 <www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugsSafety/ucm312846.htm>

Voter Suppression and Political Polls by Charles M. Blow

Polls are used to determine the trend which voters are most likely to follow during an election but these polls are becoming insignificant due to the new voter registration laws which are being put in place especially in vote swinging states such as Pennsylvania. Many likely voters in the swing states intend to vote for President Obama but it is these who are most likely to be excluded from the voting roles due to their ineligibility to vote under the new laws. Both presidential candidates have made numerous visits to swing states in an attempt to get a larger share of votes within these states than their opponents. Moreover, some governors, especially in Florida, have made it harder for former felons to vote and since most of these ex-felons are either of Latino or African American descent who tend to vote Democrat, it means that Obama will most likely lose crucial votes in these states. It is not known exactly how many voters are aware of these new electoral rules due to the fact that not many people follow news about the upcoming elections and the changes which have been made to electoral laws. It is suspected that many people who are expected to vote for their preferred candidates (in this case President Obama) might be turned away due to the fact of their ineligibility. The new election laws have been pushed by Republicans in order to suppress the ability of Democratic voters to vote in large numbers, thus ensuring Republican victories in these states.

 http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/voter-suppression-and-political-polls/

From Victim to Vicious by Charles M. Blow

Charles Blow states that the Mitt Romney campaign had adopted the stance of being victims of vicious attacks from the Obama campaign team. This is despite the fact that the Romney team has continuously led a smear campaign against Obama stating his weakness in matters of policy as well as attacking him personally concerning deviant events in his past which he has confessed to and regrets. Furthermore, it is ironical that the Romney campaign is making such claims and is behaving like a victim when in fact, it is they who have made vicious attacks against Obama and his administration. This has been a new attempt to discredit the Obama campaign by playing the victim because all other attacks against Obama, whether personal or political, seem to have failed so far. It is quite possible that Romney is attempting to divert attention from the weak points of his campaign such as his unwillingness to make information about his tax returns public, among others. These claims by Romney may just work against his favor especially considering that he is accusing a relatively popular president of making vicious attacks against him. This might not go very well with the public because of the fact that Obama’s controversial issues have already been dealt with and accepted by the public during the previous elections and raising these issues further will only help the Obama campaign. Recent polls asking who had better personal character to assume the presidency showed that Obama would more likely be elected than Romney. Furthermore, Romney’s complete refusal to reveal his income tax returns may lead to the continued distrust of the electorate and ruin his chances of getting elected.

http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/from-victim-to-vicious/

The Extension of Russian Sanctions is Ill-advised

The Trump administration, through its UN ambassador, recently stated that the eruption of violence in eastern Ukraine was Russia’s fault and that as a result, sanctions are going to remain in place. This action is likely to be considered hostile by Russia especially considering that the crisis in Ukraine can be blamed on both sides of the conflict. Since the election of President Trump, a considerable amount of optimist has developed in Russia that its government is going to work well with the United States to ensure that some of the most critical issues that are of common interest are addressed. The beginning of such a relationship was to be promoted by a lifting of sanctions, leading to the normalization of relations. However, this hope has receded slightly because of the American decision to extend sanctions.

The sanctions regime against Russia fails to put into consideration that it was the Obama administration, rather than Russia, which started the Ukraine crisis. It was American agents, under the direction of undersecretary of state Victoria Nuland, that instigated and facilitated the so-called Maidan Revolution that led to the overthrow of a legitimately and democratically elected president. Ukraine was not an
d has never been a part of what can be considered the traditional American sphere of influence. Instead, it has consistently been a part of the Russian world. Ukraine, specifically the city of Kyiv, is considered the cradle of the Russian civilization and both Russia and Ukraine consider themselves to be descended from Kievan Rus. The close linguistic and familial ties that many Russians and Ukrainians share cannot be underestimated, and this is the reason why the crisis in Ukraine is so tragic.

Ukraine has a long history of being under Russian dominance and there was a time when most of its eastern parts were known Novorossiya, or New Russia. Its close ties to Russia cannot be denied and it is in Russia’s interests to ensure that it has friendly relations with Ukraine. This was the case until the crisis, encouraged by the Obama administration, took place. The Russian reaction to the revolution in Ukraine was highly restrained because even though its ally and democratically elected president, Viktor Yanukovych was overthrown and a nationalist government put in his place, Russia did not undertake a full-scale invasion. Russia, instead, undertook two measured actions; the return of Crimea without bloodshed, and the provision of support for the rebels in eastern Ukraine. If, for example, a similar circumstance as the Maidan Revolution had taken place in Mexico with the active support of Russia, the United States would have acted to ensure that Russian influence was pushed back because it would have been considered a threat to its nationalsecurity. The fact that there is indeed a rebellion in eastern Ukraine shows that the Maidan Revolution did not have the support of the entire Ukrainian population. Instead, the revolution brought about a situation where the country ended up being dominated by a government filled by nationalist elements that leaned towards fascism. In addition, if it were truly a genuine government, it would have sought to implement the Minsk Agreements by giving the eastern Ukrainian oblasts the autonomy that it had promised; allowing for their participation in the national elections. Currently, the government in Kyiv is dominated by western Ukrainian nationalists that are hostile to any attempts to end the civil war. The result is that it is in their interest to ensure that a conflict with Russian-backed rebels continues in order for them to have some claim to legitimacy. Therefore, it is wrong for the Trump administration to continue sanctions against Russia, which essentially remains an outside actor, because despite Russian support for the rebels, it is up to the Ukrainians themselves to get to the negotiations table and sort out their own problems.