Comparisons of the histories of France and Italy

 

The history of France and Italy is one that can be considered to run parallel to one another. This is especially the case when one considers that they have a shared history based on the Roman Empire, of which they were both a part for centuries (Hopkins, 1980). Furthermore, both of these nations have long histories of not only friendship, but also conflict, especially after the fall of the Roman Empire. The significance of these nations history is that they have both become extremely influential over the history of the rest of Europe, as seen in the manner through which they are not only important members of the European Union, but they have also come to have centuries of cultural influence that can still be felt on the continent today. France, for example, was one of the most powerful and wealthiest countries in Europe and because of this; its culture was dominant on the continent, as seen through the widespread use of French as a diplomatic language throughout continental Europe until it was supplanted by English. Italy, on the other hand, was also influential because it is the birthplace of the Renaissance and the cultural awakening of Europe following the medieval period. A comparison of France and Italy is pertinent, especially from a historical, economic, and civilian victimization perspective.

France is one of the most powerful countries in the world as well as being a leader among the nations of Europe. It has a long history of being a nation beginning with the Carolingian dynasty, and its identity as a nation has been maintained into the modern world. Its role within Europe has become even more prominent following the exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Faure, 2019). Furthermore, France is a nation that is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, which allows it considerable influence over other nations in the world. it is also a member of other prominent multilateral organizations, including the G7 and NATO. Because of this, France has maintained the considerable influence that it has wielded across the world for centuries, and has allowed this country to make sure that it maintains its cultural influence not only in Europe, but also in the rest of the world. The importance of this situation can be seen through the way that France continues to become involved in a diversity of conflicts either as a participant or mediator, especially in its former colonies like Mali and the Central African Republic (Glawion & De Vries, 2018). In recent decades, France has pursued a policy of reconciliation and cooperation with Germany, a nation that it had been rivals with for many centuries. This cooperation has proven pivotal because it has ensured that there is the promotion of a scenario where they not only work together to ensure that economic integration of Europe, but also the use of a common currency within the European Union. France also includes overseas entities such as Guadeloupe, Mayotte, Reunion, Martinique, and French Guiana, which are considered an integral part of the state since they were made a part of France proper. In this way, France continues to be an influential nation in a diversity of regions across the world, which has ensured that it maintains a prominent position in global politics.

Italy is another prominent state in Europe and this has been mainly because it is from the peninsula that the Roman state arose. Since the time of the Roman Empire, Italy has played an important role in European affairs to such an extent that it was often at the center of conflicts between outside European states such as Spain, France, and Austria to gain control over it (Davis, 2000). The legacy of the Roman Empire has therefore played an important role in its history to such an extent that it has become possible for the nation to not only leave a permanent imprint on the culture, but also politics of Europe. Italy officially took on its modern version in 1861 following its unification under King Victor Emmanuel II. This nation has since then become one of the most important in Europe not only because of its becoming one of the most influential because of its involvement in European imperialism, when it colonized parts of Somalia and Libya, and later Ethiopia, but also because of the way that it rose to even greater prominence with the rise of a fascist government under Benito Mussolini (Melograni, 1976). However, following its defeat in the Second World War, Italy has become a democratic republic that has been at the forefront of the promotion of European integration and its political and economic unification. However, unlike France, which has promoted considerable unity within its boundaries, Italy has witnessed problems based on the manner that its north has become more developed and prosperous than its south, which has essentially been neglected. The prominence of these problems has created problems within this country as it has become divided politically. Moreover, unlike France, whose influence over its former colonies has remained significant, Italy, because of the wrong choices of its government, especially the Fascists, ended up losing much of its influence, with the result being that Italian influence, especially in the form of language, is only felt in a small part of the world.

The economic development of modern Italy began when it joined the Marshall Plan of the United States. This plan allowed Italy to recover from the devastation of the Second World War and the civil war that took place within the latter. A consequence of the Marshall Plan was that by 1950, Italy was able to ensure that its economy recovered enough to not only be stable, but also begin booming (Ellwood, 2003). As an integral part of the nations of Western Europe during the Cold War, Italy was able to make sure that it promoted its interests through its becoming a founding member of the European Economic Community which would eventually transform into the European Union. Therefore, the Italian economy was able to modernize and grow considerably quickly during the Cold War and this ensured that it was able to utilize the Marshall Plan to develop the mechanisms that would ensure that it not only adapted, but also domesticated the economy in subsequent decades. Thus, following the failure of fascism, Italy undertook to ensure that it followed the American model of economic development, which allowed it to not only enhance its economic standing, but also to internationalize in a manner that greatly enhanced growth. There was the operationalization of the economic growth of the nation in such a way that Italy was able to overcome the previous perspective of its industrial and developmental prospects being rooted in the ideas of craftsmanship, thrift, and frugality, and instead came to adopt an economic model which allowed for free trade and internationalism based on the expansion of trade with other countries. Also, Italy let of the protectionist policies that it pursued during the fascist era and has over the decades taken advantage of the globalized trade relationships to ensure that it prospers at an economic level.

France also took part in the Marshall Plan and it did so following an initial attempt not to become a part of it. The devastation of the Second World War on France forced the country to seek the aid of the United States mainly because it was the main basis upon which its economic recovery could be attained (Esposito, 1994). The significance of this situation can be seen through the way that it not only allowed for the economic recovery of France, but it was also used as a means of funding its economic efforts in Indochina. In addition to low interest loans, the United States ensured that it provided France with grants that it did not have to pay back. A consequence is that France was not only able to rearm itself and enhance its war effort in Indochina, but it was also able to develop an effective means through which it allowed itself to expand its development process while at the same time allowing for the attainment of the goal of recovery. Thus, within a few years following the Second World War, France was able to ensure that it attained the goal of economic recovery as well as the expansion of its influence as it reestablished itself in its colonies. The massive change that took place in France can be considered quite significant because it led to a reduction of nationalist feeling and the acceptance of aid when otherwise it would not have done so. Furthermore, France was able to regain normal growth by the 1950s to such an extent that the government was able to provide support to critical firms, a majority of which carried on normally. However, there was little change in the way that industrial managers in France ran their firms because there was no change in the content of their training. Like Italy, France was also able to take advantage of the global markets in order to enhance its growth and to spread its influence.

The case of civilian victimization can be seen in both the histories of France and Italy, especially when one considers the manner through which these states acted as colonial powers. Both France and Italy undertook the process of making sure that there was the promotion of a scenario where there was the enhancement of the prestige and authority of their European populations in the colonies. In this way, it became possible to make sure that there was the promotion of the national interests of the Italians or French as the situation demanded. Italy was able, in its efforts to ensure that it gained control over Albania, with the result being that it undertook the beginning of the process of assimilation for the Albanians (Bakić, 2014). The assimilation process involved the encouragement of Italian colonists to settle and own land in occupied Albania with the aim of making sure that the country was eventually made more Italian. A direct consequence was the victimization of the civilian population because Italy essentially forced them to seek to abandon their culture and nationality in favor of becoming Italian in their way of life. It is noteworthy that because of the manner through which Albania was taken over, there was considerable resistance from the local population, led by the communist party, which ensured that there was the prevention of the total Italicization of the country. However, Italy took on a highly negative attitude towards those that resisted its efforts to such an extent that it resulted in a situation where those who were believed to resist Italian rule were often dealt with in brutal ways, especially by the members of the Albanian fascist party.

France also undertook policies which resulted in the victimization of civilians within their colonies. Like Italy in Albania, France also adopted policies which were aimed at making sure that there population of their colonies became assimilated to such an extent that they not only adopted French as a language, but also French culture. This is a practice that was made use of in the colonies, as seen in nations such as Algeria, where there was the rapid promotion of a scenario that advanced the idea that French culture was superior and was therefore the ideal for adoption by the native populations of the colony (Betts, 2005). Because of the considerable effort to settle Algeria with French colonists, this population was able to advance the agenda of France in such a way that it considered itself French while at the same time making sure that there was the promotion of a situation where they fought for the identity of Algeria as a French province. Those individuals that sought to enhance the independence of the country or promoted the idea of the Muslim identity of the territory were therefore considered enemies of the state and were often arrested and treated in inhuman ways. This shows that despite its advancement of the idea that its culture was highly advanced, France undertook actions that were essentially inhumane and made it possible for their actions to be viewed as being oppressive to the populations of their colonies that did not support its efforts of assimilation. Thus, France ended up rewarding loyalists while at the same time undertook efforts aimed at suppressing the part of the population that did not wish to assimilate to its culture.

In conclusion, this paper has sought to ensure that there is the comparison of France and Italy from a historical, economic, and civilian victimization perspective. It has shown that the histories of the countries is quite complex, as seen through the way that France was able to develop earlier as a nation state while Italy only became a nation state in 1861 following centuries of being a pawn or victim in great European power politics. Furthermore, it considers the way that the economies of France and Italy were able to advance following the destruction of the Second World War and the manner that the Marshall Plan played a pertinent role in bringing about the attainment of economic recovery. Finally, there is a consideration of the victimization of civilians by both countries, especially due to the assimilation policies of Italy in Albania and France in Algeria.

Why did liberal ideas become so prominent in world politics?

 

Liberal ideas originate in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, and it came about during the early emergence of capitalism (Windschuttle 5). These ideas were particularly strong within the middle class that emerged following the rise of industrialization and it can be considered to have been a reflection of the empowerment of the new industrial class in a world that was dominated by the aristocracy. Individuals such as John Locke and Adam Smith, among others, can be considered to have been the founders and proponents of the liberal ideas as they are today. Locke. For example, promoted the idea of a social contract, where authority was conferred on a government based on the consent of the individuals that were to be governed. This authority allowed the ruler to ensure that they maintained order and justice as well as promote basic rights, including property rights. This paper addresses the reasons why liberal ideas became so prominent in world politics, its base assumptions, and how they are likely to work.

One of the most fundamental liberal beliefs is the right to representation. This is seen through the way that there are essentially three branches of government, namely the executive, legislature, and judiciary, which are critical because of the way that they create a balance when it comes to the provision of checks and balances (Shane 161). Moreover, liberal ideas identify the need for a balanced society based on the universal nature of political laws as well as the predictableness of the nature of humans. Liberals promote the idea that social cohesion and harmony can be achieved under circumstances where individuals are able to establish their common interests in a manner that ensures that society is held together. The promotion of a balance, based on Isaac Newton’s idea of a natural equilibrium, allows for a consideration of the manner through which checks to the power of the government in relation to society can be achieved. This process is also significant because it allows for the attainment of the goal of ensuring that society remains harmonious through the establishment of a balance in political power.

It is also noteworthy that liberal ideas have also come to have an influence on economics. This is especially the case when it comes to the theoretical foundation, laid by Adam Smith in his The Wealth of Nations, which proposes that free markets, as well as trade that is free from the interference of government, is critical for the enhancement of economic development (Adam). This is especially the case when it comes to free markets, which are not only more efficient, but also ensure that the use of resources is undertaken in the most productive way possible. Furthermore, it proposes that individuals gain the economic rewards that they deserve, since the economy is driven by the market. Free trade is therefore essential because it considers the way that the whole society can end up benefitting through the market economies that provide for greater prosperity. This idea is significant because it allows for a consideration of the way that the economy is a self-driving entity whose strengths or weaknesses are dictated by market forces.

The emergence of liberalism as the dominant force in world politics can be considered to have been a result of the ideological wars that plagued the 20^th century. On a global scale, its greatest competitors were communism and fascism. However, with the fall of the latter in the last decades of the 20^th century, liberal values emerged triumphant (Richardson 127). This is especially the case when it comes to the promotion of a system of trade that encompasses the globe, the introduction of welfare at a moderate level, and the rapid technological advancements that have essentially become accepted in the rest of the world. The liberal values of the West has allowed the nations within it to attain economic, technological, cultural, and military dominance over the rest of the world, and this has ensured that the liberal economic and political systems, as well as moral values have ended up being imposed on other countries in regions such as Latin America, Asia, and Africa. In this way, globalism can be considered to be a manifestation of Western cultural and political dominance over the rest of the world.

From an ideological stance, liberalism was able to flourish like never before following the fall of the Soviet Union. The latter came about mainly because of the manner through which following the end of the considerable power that was wielded by communism globally, there was an assault on the social-democratic state (Lindbom 173). There was the promotion of the idea that governments have to reduce their influence over the economy and on social matters, and instead, there was to be a greater role for private initiative. Moreover, there was the need to make sure that free markets were promoted because they allowed for continued economic growth. Liberal ideas, therefore, have come to influence almost all aspects of Western society, as seen through the way that the West has essentially ended up taking on a more prominent role when it comes to the promotion of liberal internationalist values. The imposition of liberal values on the rest of the world is therefore a reflection of the considerable influence that it has come to have not only on Western states, but also on international institutions.

The beginnings of liberal dominance can be traced to the 1980s, when Western countries had essentially adopted liberal economic theories in different forms. This can be seen in the way that governments from both the political left and right played critical roles when it came to the adoption of liberal values in their economic policies (Ashford 1). Consequently, there was the emergence of a scenario where Western governments undertook the privatization of state-owned assets, the weakening of unions, and reductions in income tax. In addition, there was a move aimed at bringing about a reduction of welfare provision in a bid to enhance the role played by the free market economy. However, the implementation of liberal economic policies in Western countries such as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, was met with varying degrees of success, as seen through the way that it resulted in considerable prosperity for some countries, such as the first two, and had a mixed effect on the latter. Moreover, liberal values such as the promotion of civil rights as well as devolution have become quite influential, as seen through the way that the United Kingdom has instituted devolved government.

The adoption of liberal ideas in world politics has had an effect on the entire political spectrum. This is because attitudes to such issues as abortion, homosexuality, and divorce have all come to be generally accepted. A consequence has been that these ideas have come to be accepted as part of the mainstream; with the result being that the power of liberal parties has become considerable eroded, as seen through the way that the Liberal Democrat Party in the United Kingdom has lost the influence that it had enjoyed since the beginning of the 20^th century. Liberalism has therefore come to affect the politics of nations across the world because the ideas that it promotes are not only influential, but have also changed the way that international politics is conducted. Rather than bringing about a situation where liberal political parties become more powerful, the adoption of liberal ideas into the mainstream has essentially marked an end to their influence since they can no longer claim to take on a unique outlook to the world.

However, despite its considerable dominance in world politics, liberalism has seen considerable push-back from a variety of sources. This has involved a sharp move to the right; a process that began with the election of George W. Bush in 2000 (Jost 73). There was a new attitude towards abortion, crime, internationalism, and welfare that was also accompanied by religious fundamentalism. Religious fundamentalism can be considered to be a reaction to the liberalist ideas that have permeated the world and has resulted in a scenario where individuals live in fear of cultural annihilation. Intense nationalism has also flared up in Western countries as well as in the Balkans and the Middle East, with the result being that there has been a sharp rise in populism that had essentially been pushed back by the dominance of liberalism. The move against globalization has also come about as a reaction to liberalism, because it is the ideas contained within it that have enabled the global economic system based on free trade to come about. Therefore, the globalizing process and the challenges that it is facing is a direct consequence of the liberal ideas that have been prevalent in the world since the end of the Cold War.

Following the end of the Cold War, there was a widespread belief that liberalism has triumphed over totalitarianism. The new, United States-led world order was to ensure the spread of democracy and enhance the position of free trade across the world. Furthermore, the period immediately following the fall of the Soviet Union saw the belief of the idea that there was no alternative to liberal capitalist democracy, which was seen as the most effective system when it came to the maintenance of freedom, social and intellectual achievement, as well as progress in society. There was also the hope that liberalism would ensure that an improvement to the living standards of individuals across the world could be achieved. However, as has been seen in the previous paragraph, this would not be the case and instead, there has been a considerable loss of faith when it comes to liberalism.

However, the continued dominance of liberalist ideas in international politics shows that it is still a force to be reckoned with. This is seen through the way that in theory and practice, liberalism favors the promotion of liberal political institutions and free society based on the market economy as well as private property (France-Hudson 108). Choice is also seen to be a positive aspect of society because it allows for the promotion of freedom. Moreover, in the modern world, individuals continue to be rewarded based on the market value of their talents, which is essentially because it follows the liberal idea of free market. Thus, the market acts as an incentive since it encourages individuals to put in an effort aimed at bringing about the realization of their greatest potential while at the same time attaining prosperity within free market conditions. Liberalism has therefore continued to be the mainstay of the global economy and society.

The promotion of free trade continues to be undertaken despite moves against it. This is a process that has been seen through the considerable interconnectedness that has been achieved within the global economy (Niblett 17). Thus, no country can realistically exist without others and it is because of this environment that it has become necessary for nations to develop bilateral and multilateral trade agreements to define the way that they conduct trade with one another. These agreements have ensured that there is the promotion of economic efficiency and wellbeing across the world and despite the negative comments against it, liberalism has played a positive role in helping to bring about the attainment of the goal of bringing individuals from across different cultures together towards a common cause. The rapid economic growth that is seen in emerging economies it a pertinent example of the massive benefits reaped from liberalist ideas. It is also necessary to consider that the concept of the free market is one that advances the idea that it is not only self-regulating, but it also creates an environment within which free markets for services, goods, and labor have come to be viewed positively.

In conclusion, liberal ideas have essentially become the universal ideology in the West based on its considerable dominance. This is especially when one considers that its basic assumptions have become the norm in most societies. Among the basest assumptions that are made by liberalism is that the rights of individuals should be given primacy, and the government is duty bound to ensure that these rights are defended. Moreover, there is the promotion of an optimistic view concerning the nature of humans and the possibility of the attainment of progress. Thus, freedom is highly esteemed, and because of this, there is some suspicion when it comes to the state, meaning that there is the promotion of the need to ensure that the institutions of state are checked. However, the presence of the state is considered a necessity in order to ensure that there is the protection of the rights of individuals, including their right to private property. Also, the market economy is a central pillar of the liberalist world, and this is based on the assumption that it is an economic perspective that is more efficient than one that is state controlled or protectionist. However, there has been the recognition that a market economy does not necessarily produce prosperity and instead, there are instances where there is a detrimental effect on individuals and cultures across the world. This is among the reasons behind the rise of nationalist and populist movements across the world as there are efforts being made to ensure that liberalist ideas are countered.

Is military victory a useful term anymore?

 

The term ‘military victory’ is one that, in the modern world, has come to lose meaning. This is because most of the military engagements that are undertaken tend not to have a logical end, as seen through the way that the United States’ invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq did not come to a conclusion and instead, this country and its allies became bogged down in cycles of conflict (Martel, 2011, pp. 517, 531). The classical military objectives of any nation are to ensure that the enemy is forced into negotiations, or completely disarmed. However, because of the considerable developments that have taken place in recent years, non-state actors such as Daesh and insurgent groups have risen to prominence. Thus, the traditional objective of ensuring that the enemy is fully disarmed has become impossible.

Military victory has therefore essentially gone away because it is rare for warring parties to gain total victory. This is especially when one considers that war has become an extremely cheap enterprise because of the easy access that non-state actors have to weapons. The case of the way that Daesh not only evolved from Al Qaeda in Iraq and was able to have considerable territorial gains in Iraq and Syria within a very short time despite the presence of the United States and its allies, including rebel groups in Syria, shows the way that total victory cannot be attained anymore. A consequence of this situation is that it has led to the development of a scenario within which states can no longer effectively attain their stated military objectives, meaning that the term ‘military victory’ is no longer useful.