The Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan is a racist, anti-Semitic society with a dedication to excessive violence to attain its goals of racial separation and white dominance. It first emerged in 1866 following the American Civil War and it is considered to be America’s first terrorist group. Its first target was African – Americans and the white people who supported them. Later incarnations of this group added more categories amongst its enemies including Jews, Catholics, homosexuals, and the various immigrant groups in the United States. In most of these cases, these recognized enemies of the Klan were marginal groups that came into direct financial competition with the working class whites that formed the core constituency of these groups. According to Newton (202) the activities were however surpassed by growing neo – Nazi organizations in the United States in the 1990s and in the early 2000s.

The Ku Klux Klan was basically based in the Southern states of America where they targeted the African Americans set free after the American Civil War. The Klan had never considered the former slaves as being free and they terrorized the African Americans to maintain their supremacy as well as to express their anger at the freedoms granted to these former slaves. The root cause for their actions was that although America experienced great economic prosperity after the Civil War, not much of the wealth generated filtered to the South and it was the racism, mixed with anger at their economic plight that inspired the activities of the Ku Klux Klan. The Klan was a violent organization and they burnt the churches of the African American population, murdered, raped and castrated those who they targeted and they were rarely caught because most senior law enforcers in the South were also high ranking Klan members or were sympathetic to its aims.

According to Bullard (9) he earliest branch of the Ku Klux Klan was created in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1866 and most of its leaders had been previous members of the Confederate army in the Civil War. During the next two years after its founding, they tortured and killed African – Americans and those whites who were sympathetic to them. Immigrants, who the Klan blamed for the election of radical Republicans, were also targeted and between 1868 and 1870, the Ku Klux Klan was instrumental in the restoration of white rule in the states of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. West (110) states that the original objective of the Ku Klux Klan was to stop the African American people from voting so that white domination of the Southern states would be maintained. After all-white governments had been established in the South, this group continued to undermine the power of African Americans by attacking successful black businessmen and by stifling any attempt to form black protection groups such as trade unions. Since the Ku Klux Klan had achieved its main objective in the Southern states, by the end of 1871, the organization had practically disappeared.

It is claimed by Gitlin (133) that after its formation, the Klan quickly became a terrorist organization in the service of the Democratic Party and white supremacists and that its main goal was to destroy Congressional Reconstruction by murdering blacks and some whites who were either in active Republican politics or educating black children. They burned churches and schools and drove thousands of people out of their homes and because local law enforcement representatives were incapable or reluctant to stop them, Congress approved the Force Bill in 1871 giving the Federal government the authority to take legal action against the Klan. Dedicated prosecutors managed to win convictions and break up Klan activity and although relatively few people were punished, federal action did put an end to Klan activities, at least for a while.

Maclean (23) states that the Ku Klux Klan was reorganized in 1915 by William Simmons, a preacher who had been influenced by the book The Ku Klux Klan written in 1905 by Thomas Dixon and a film version of the book which glorified the past actions of this group. After World War One, the Ku Klux Klan became very antagonistic towards various religious and political groups and ideologies which they considered to be foreign to the United States. It was under the charismatic leadership of Hiram Evans, the group grew quickly and by the 1920s, Klansmen had been elected into positions of political authority and these included officials in Texas, Oklahoma, Indiana, Oregon, and Maine. By 1925, the Klan members had reached a record four million members and this gave them so much power that on the rare occasions when they were arrested for serious crimes, Klansmen were unlikely to be convicted by the local Southern juries. However, after the conviction of a senior Klan leader for murder and the revelation of evidence of corruption by other senior members of this group such as the then governor of Indiana and the mayor of Indianapolis, the membership of the Klan started falling and this trend went on through the Great Depression and the Second World War. Eventually, the organization was weakened by disagreements amongst its leadership and because of the public criticism of its violent activities and by 1944, the Klan had lost most of its influence and membership and it was disbanded.

Chalmers (16) states that the emergence of the Civil Rights movement in the 1950s resulted in the revival of the Ku Klux Klan movement and it saw a surge of Klan activity which included terror attacks on black schools and churches. The various Klan groups put pressure on African Americans not to vote mostly through lynching which the Klan employed as a method of terrorizing the local African American population. The success of these Klan activities can be seen in the state of Mississippi in 1960 where although the African Americans formed 42% of the population, only 2% were registered to vote.

In conclusion, it can be said that the Ku Klux Klan movement, despite its violent history, is still a part and parcel of the general history of the South of the United States. It however only developed to a position of great power during what can only be considered as emergencies. For example, it came into existence as a result of the emancipation of the slaves after the Civil War, the influx of immigrants after the First World War, and the rise of the Civil Rights movement. The Klan’s existence has been very persistent since its founding and it is as yet not known what its next incarnation is going to be.

References

Bullard, Sara. The Klu Klux Klan: A History of Racism and Violence. Darby, Pennsylvania: Diane Publishing, 1998.

Chalmers, David Mark. Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. Lanham, Maryland, 2003.

Gitlin, Marty. The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2009.

MacLean, Nancy. Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Newton, Michael. The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: A History. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2010.

West, Jerry Lee. The Reconstruction Ku Klux Klan in York County, South Carolina, 1865 – 1877. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2002.

Menopause: The Symptoms

According to Fox-Spencer and Brown (2006), menopause is the point when a woman has her last period which happens when her ovaries stop releasing eggs, and for some women, it happens all at once but for many women, it is a gradual process. If a woman has not had a period in more than a year, is not pregnant, or does not have another illness, she may have most likely reached menopause and this typically, this happens when the woman is in her fifties.

Planned Parenthood, in their website state that perimenopause is the gradual change that leads to menopause which usually happens between the ages of 45 and 55 but it is not unknown to begin as early as 40, a time when menstrual periods usually become less predictable and they may become more or less frequent or may be heavier or lighter. Women who smoke have a higher possibility of going into perimenopause earlier than those women who do not smoke. Perimenopause is a process that can last for few months or can go on for up to 12 years depending on the physiological make up of the woman involved. If a woman has not had a period for more than a year or two, then this marks the end of the perimenopausal stage and the beginning of menopause.

Surgical menopause occurs with the removal of both ovaries in women who have yet to undergo menopause and this induces menopause because they suddenly experience the symptoms of menopause without the normal gradual changes that occur. Women with surgical menopause experience the following changes: hot flashes; sweating at night; the drying of the vagina; heart palpitations; frequent mood swings; unexplained depression; constant fatigue; and some changes in their sexual desire.

Stress menopause is caused by the constant stress experienced by a woman on many occasions which hastens the menopausal process. This type of stress can be caused by the various factors related to stress, for example, exposure to radiation, smoking, excessive alcohol intake or having a poor diet. Most of these factors result in stress or are the symptoms of a woman having stress.

Post menopause is the stage following menopause which normally starts between 24 and 36 months after the last period that a woman experiences. There is a reduction of menopausal symptoms as become less frequent. However, the reduction of menopausal symptoms during the postmenopausal stage is not uniform among all women and some may continue having them for a very long time after their last period while others have them for only a short time.

As a woman approaches menopause, her menstrual period starts to change and the time between periods can be shorter or longer and may vary from month to month and the defining feature of menopause taking place is the stopping of menstrual periods. However, it is difficult to determine whether a woman has experienced her last period or not unless she displays menopausal symptoms. The most common menopause symptoms are: changes in sexual desire, extreme sweating, frequent urinary tract infections, frequent urination, irritability, night sweats, sleep problems, and vaginal dryness.

Many life changes can occur during Perimenopause and menopause which can affect a woman. These changes can cause the increase of the symptoms of menopause and they include: anxiety about future loss of independence; anxiety about disability or loneliness; changes in social relationships; changes in identity or body image; children leaving home; getting divorced; and increased anxiety about illness, aging, or death among many others.

Osteoporosis is a disease that weakens bones, increasing the risk of sudden and unexpected fractures which results in the loss bone mass and strength and it progresses without any symptoms or pain. There is a relationship linking the deficiency of estrogen in women during perimenopause and menopause and the occurrence of osteoporosis because of early menopause and the prolonged periods in which hormone levels are low and menstrual periods are absent or infrequent which can cause loss of bone mass.

Wang-Cheng and Neuer (2007) state that some women opt for hormone therapy to treat their menopause symptoms and these therapy may include pills, patches, implants, rings, and vaginal creams whose main purpose is to replace hormones such as estrogen and progesterone that the body stops making during perimenopause and menopause. Some women concerned about the risks of hormone therapy choose alternative therapies including homeotherapy, herbal treatments and Chinese medicines but these therapies may also have undesired effects.

In conclusion, menopause is a very normal occurrence in women which has to happen during their lifetime and at different paces depending on the individual who is experiencing it. This period of gradual change in women should be met with understanding from their partners, family and co-workers because it is a very difficult time for them. By treating them with understanding, the process will be so much easier not only for them but also for those around them. It is important to recognize that whilst the menopause may cause some distressing symptoms, it is not an illness and it will happen to every woman who reaches menopausal age.  

Cited Works

Fox-Spencer, Rebecca & Brown, Pam. (2006). Menopause. Oxford, United Kingdom: CSF Medical Communications Limited.

Planned Parenthood. (2012). Menopause. Retrieved from http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/womens-health/menopause-4807.htm?__utma=1.1141080531.1343551155.1343553528.1343555843.3&__utmb=1.17.9.1343556410875&__utmc=1&__utmx=-&__utmz=1.1343551155.1.1.utmcsr=(direct)|utmccn=(direct)|utmcmd=(none)&__utmv=-&__utmk=19141048 .

Wang-Cheng, Rebekah & Neuer, Joan M. (2007). Menopause. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ACP Press.

Face-to-face vs. Distance Learning

There are many advantages of the face-to-face learning system and some of these are dependent on the accessibility if the course instructors as well as the consistency if classes. Face-to-face leaning not only has the advantage of enabling students to develop a culture of teamwork, but it also enables them to actively participate in the lecture. Professors are able to directly influence their students by teaching them the ideas which are propagated by their various schools of thought. It is for these reasons that the following statement comes true:

Students who prefer the traditional format (face-to-face) do so for several reasons, but they most commonly cite a preference for the instructor presence and the learning advantage of face-to-face interactions.

(Daymont, 2011: 156)

There are various disadvantages of face-to-face learning despite the fact that it is still the most popular mode of learning. Some of these disadvantages stem from the need for there to be an instructor present in order for lectures to take place and this added to the cost of transport imposed on the students may limit their access to education. Although it is emphasized by many that face-to-face learning is preferable, it is still quite limited:

For example, the learning outcomes of students in a traditional face-to-face system may be considered to be better than those of students learning in a distance learning system but the latter has the advantage of permitting greater access to education.

(Henry, 1998:117)

The distance learning system has an advantage over the face-to-face system because it enables many people to have access to education at their own convenience. This system is currently used by adults who, because of their busy schedules, cannot attend lectures frequently and their best and fastest option is to do so online. It is to the advantage of these students for them to have distance learning that is easier for them to cope with:

Factors that predispose undergraduates towards taking online classes were examined and it was found that the risk factors for non-completion of their degree prefer distance education courses since distance educations courses provide students with more convenient and flexible class schedules.

(Moore and Kearsley, 2011:150)

The distance learning system also has some disadvantages which face-to-face learning does not. Distance learning does not require the presence of a professor or instructor and this leads to less interaction between them. Furthermore, it is very difficult for a student to gain a full understanding of what the instructor is saying because responses to queries take a very long time to get. A further disadvantage is that it is very hard for the students being taught a course through distance channels to develop the necessary skills that are needed for teamwork, an advantage that face-to-face learning has over distance learning. Research has shown that many students still prefer face-to-face learning to distance learning because they feel that it is a better way of getting instruction from their professors. A study undertaken on various distance learning students showed:

Surprisingly, more students would like to have more turns when interacting with the instructor and this seems to contradict their earlier assertion that they did not want to focus more on listening and speaking.

(Zi-Gang, 2012: 291)

Cited Works

Daymont, T. and Blau, G., 2011. Deciding Between Traditional and Online Formats: Exploring the Role of Learning Advantages, Flexibility, and Compensatory Adaptation. Journal Of Behavioral & Applied Management, 12 (2), pp.156-175, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 15 August 2012.

Henry, M., 1998. Using IT Effectively: A Guide To Technology In The Social Sciences. Oxon, United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis.

Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G., 2011. Distance Education: A Systems View of Online Learning. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning.

Zi-Gang, G., 2012. Cyber Asynchronous versus Blended Cyber Approach in Distance English Learning. Journal Of Educational Technology & Society, 15(2), pp.286-297.