Parole within the correctional system

 

Parole can be defined as a period of supervision by the community that is afforded to inmates once they have served their minimum sentence or have displayed good behavior over a certain period of incarceration (Parole from Past to Present). Parole is granted by the Parole Board, which only makes such a decision following the attainment of reasonable assurances that the inmate involved will not become a public security risk or a menace to society. Such assurances are provided by the corrections facility in which the inmate is incarcerated and are a critical factor because they allow for a consideration of the entire history of the inmate’s stay at the facility as a means of determining whether or not they deserve to be paroled. Additionally, while the individual (parolee) is on parole, he or she is put under the supervision of an agent that is employed by the Department of Corrections in order to make sure that they adhere to the conditions of their parole as well as to determine whether the individual involve has indeed become rehabilitated and can therefore be a responsible member of society. Once the parolee has successfully completed their parole period, they end up being discharged from their sentence. However, in a scenario where there are violations of the parole terms by the parolee, including any of the standard or special conditions that have been set as a condition for being paroled, the parolee will often end up being sent back to prison in order to serve the rest of their sentence. Therefore, the Parole Board has jurisdiction over the parolee until such a time as the latter has either been discharged from parole or has served their maximum sentence.

The main objective of this paper is to study the history of parole, its current status, and the potential role that it is going to play in the corrections system as it is being reformed.

History

The parole system is a fairly resent development that has in recent decades become a critical part of the corrections system. This has come about despite the considerable opposition and obstacles that were put in its path during its initial stages, as there was widespread belief that it was being too lenient to criminals and that it could potentially compromise the criminal justice system. However, during its initial stages, parole was adopted by a majority of states in the United States as well as countries such as New Zealand, Canada, England, Australia, France, and Belgium, with the result being that there was the promotion of a situation where there was the aim of rehabilitation of inmates over their punishment (Brown, 1915). The advances that have been made since the beginnings of parole and its widespread adoption in the 20^th century among the countries named above have shown it to be an effective means of making sure that there is the advancement of the interests of both the inmates that qualify and society. Furthermore, it has proven to be an effective system that requires a number of reforms, including thorough standardization as a means of ensuring that there is the enhancement of the corrections system. In the United States, for example, the interchange of experiences of parole between states has allowed for the establishment of common standards as well as progress concerning how best to enhance the effectiveness of parole. It has allowed for a consideration of improvements of the system in a way that provides for greater efficiency in the process. However, since its beginnings, parole has received a number of criticisms, which have discouraged the reform of the system in order to increase its use as a means of reducing recidivism as well as promote rehabilitation among inmates.

At the beginning of the 20^th century, each state in the United States moves towards the creation of parole within the corrections system. This was based on the belief that parole was to function as an enhancement to the rehabilitative functions of correction facilities (Burke, 2011). It allowed for the creation of parole boards, whose major function was to ensure that there was an evaluation of the readiness and determination of when rehabilitation has taken place among inmates. It is also pertinent to note that these boards had considerable power to such an extent that it was not uncommon for the personal biases of board members to determine the fate of inmates; including the denial of parole for the most deserving of individuals. A notable case is that of Pittman v. the Pennsylvania Board of Probation and Parole, which involved Pittman accusing the latter of not granting him credit for the time he had spent at liberty because he was a convicted parole violator ("Pittman v. PA BD. OF PROBATION AND PAROLE," 2017). Previously, the granting of parole was done in the context of a sentencing scheme that was indeterminate and was therefore completely unpredictable. However, beginning in the 1960s, the sentencing system changed in such a way that there was the adoption of a model that was more determinate (Burke, 2011). However, parole still faced considerable criticisms, among which was that rehabilitation was not possible and that nothing that was done to achieve it actually worked. Another criticism was that there was a lack of standards among parole boards when it came to making their decisions and because of this, the decisions that they made were often based on the arbitrariness or biases of their members; resulting in their not being fair. Finally, there was the belief that releasing inmates earlier than the time prescribed for their sentence made the corrections system soft on crime.

Current status

The major aim of parole in the modern world is to ensure that there is the reduction of recidivism. However, it is pertinent to note that this should not be the central strategy of the corrections system because the major focus is the reduction of overcrowding in prisons rather than a focus on rehabilitation (Tonry, 2011). A consequence of this situation has been that parole has been used for the wrong purposes with the aim of promoting a reduction in the prison population rather than a focus on the welfare of the inmates. Additionally, because of the considerable expense that is in the process of dealing with parole cases as well as keeping tabs on parolees following their release, this program has not been replicated as efficiently as it should. Instead, because of a lack of focus on rehabilitation, parole has not been as effective a tool as intended. The recidivism rate continues to remain very high and this has been a cause of concern because it shows that the current parole program is not effective in making sure that the inmates that are given parole are provided with the opportunities that they need to reintegrate into society. The current situation is one that proves that more needs to be done to ensure that there is the promotion of the interests of inmates so that they are provided with the means through which they can reform rather than being punished while incarcerated. A parole and probation program that is vastly improved has the potential of ensuring that there is a reduction in the recidivism rate as well as the costs associated with corrections (Gottschalk, 2011). A focus on job training and treatment for substance abuse, in addition to effective parole supervision that is modeled on the HOPE program (Kleiman, 2011) that has been so effective in Hawaii could be the remedy in enhancing the current parole system.

Future

The correction system is moving from a strategy aimed at deterrence, and punishment, which involves control and custody over inmates, to one that is deliberately focused on changing behavior. These efforts are important because they focus more on making sure that the behavior of individuals are changed for the better so that they avoid committing crimes and instead focus more on becoming productive members of society (Puzauskas & Morrow, 2018). It is noteworthy that future efforts at corrections reform will have parole and the resulting probation as one of its most important features because of the manner through which it has come to be viewed as a viable alternative to long incarcerations that tend to end up being counterproductive. The significance of parole will also be based on the establishment of secure and safe correctional systems which emphasize the reduction of risk over anything else. The focus of the correctional system will therefore be seeking to makes sure that there is there is the reduction of incidents of offender reentry into the correctional system, and instead, there will be efforts aimed at the rehabilitation of offenders so that they have a positive experience once they leave custody. Also, there are already efforts in place that place emphasis on a diversion of investment from a heavy reliance on incarceration and placing it in policies aimed at the generation of safer and stronger communities. Parole will therefore be at the center of the new strategy because it will be a means of determining whether offenders have been rehabilitated following their going through the reformed correctional system.

Conclusion

The parole system, which is increasingly being recognized as an essential aspect of the rehabilitation of offenders, is one that can work in harmony with the way that society treats crime. The advancement of ideas of the treatment of crime by society is significant because it allows for the promotion of rehabilitation over the punishment of offenders. Parole offers a viable alternative to the long incarceration of offenders because it provides them with the opportunity to make sure that they become responsible members of society. Furthermore, parole will allow for a reduction of costs in relation to the corrections system because there will be an allowance for more investment in promoting the necessary reforms aimed at enhancing public safety and the prevention of crime. This can be done through raising social awareness as well as the provision of opportunities for paroled offenders to be reabsorbed into society. However, the reform of the corrections system with parole as one of its major aspects will require the commitment of the justice system as well as policymakers in order to enhance its effectiveness.

The Paraguayan People’s Army (EPP)

 

The Paraguayan People’s Army (EPP) is one of the most obscure guerilla movements in the world. This is because it does not have the fame or infamy of other radical political movements that have been running guerilla wars across Latin America for decades, including FARC in Colombia (McDermott, 2015). It is critical to note that despite its officially being considered to have begun in 2005, this movement seems to have had even earlier origins, with some speculation being that it was started by a groups of trainee priests who were expelled from a seminary following their pursuit of radical views that went contrary from the official position of the church. These individuals started the Movimiento Monseñor Romero in 1992 whose major aim was to ensure that there was the establishment of a socialist revolution in Paraguay as a means of dealing with the considerable poverty and inequality that plagued the society at the time (Nickson, 2019). Other reports state that the EPP is a fairly recent enterprise comprised of criminal elements that have been accused of targeting police and military personnel. However, while this may be the case, it is essential to consider that there is general agreement that the EPP was responsible for the kidnapping and murder of Cecilia Cubas, the daughter of a former president of Paraguay. While this may be the case, the EPP presents itself as a movement made up of peasants whose major aim is to ensure that there is the creation of a revolution that promotes the interests of the poor. However, this organization has been accused of having links to other insurgent groups in the region, including FARC, with the Paraguayan government claiming that FARC has been responsible for the provision of training. This paper considers the EPP and the way that it has managed to undertake its activities in a manner that advances its agenda as well as to determine whether or not it can be considered a terrorist organization.

Focus

The rise of the EPP is one of the most significant because of the way that it has become prominent in the 21^st century. This is at a time when similar insurgencies in the Latin American region, including FARC, have wound down their operations as they seek to ensure that they attain a level of legitimacy through participation in the political system. However, one of the questions that are raised concerning the EPP is the way that the Paraguayan government will handle this insurgency, especially when one considers that this organization has risen at a very different time which requires an approach that completely deviates from the conventional counterinsurgency operations that have been used against similar groups for decades. Furthermore, it is pertinent to note that the Paraguayan government has sought to bring down the EPP through conventional means, which has included the deployment of troops to those areas that are most affected by its activities. However, this raises a number of issues, including the potential of civil rights being abused, especially when one considers that the people of Paraguay have in general had a highly problematic relationship with the military. This is because of the numerous dictatorships that have come up in the country, which have been backed by the military and have caused numerous human rights abuses over the decades.

The second issue which has to be considered is the political ideology of the EPP and how it perceives itself and its actions. One of the most significant aspects of this organization is that it claims to pursue a political ideology that is left-leaning, specifically focusing on a socialist or communist perspective. Among its major inspirations are both national and international leftist heroes such as Che Guevara, whose approach to tackling inequality they claim to pursue. If the latter is true, it would make the EPP one of the most violent organizations in modern Latin America that claims to have a political ideology because since the end of the Cold War, there was a waning of the strength of such organizations as the appeal of communism saw a significant reduction. In an era where Latin America has seen the rise to prominence of drug cartels, especially in Central America, the rise of an organization that essentially seeks to make sure that there is the advancement of the interests of a leftist ideology is one that can be considered a highly momentous development. This is because it has allowed for a reevaluation of insurgencies in Latin America and whether or not they can be considered to be political activities or acts of terrorism.

Literature Review

The EPP is an organization that has become well known not only in Paraguay, but also in neighboring countries, with the security agencies of the latter seeing it as a potential risk that cannot be ignored. It has focused most of its attention on the kidnapping of wealthy members of Paraguayan society and asking for ransoms (Sanchez & Illingworth, 2017). Furthermore, it has also been accused of attacking the country’s security forces, but while this has been the case, it is noteworthy that it has not been as extensive as the kidnappings. One of the most prominent victims of the EPP was Fidel Zavala, an individual that was held by this organization for nearly a hundred days prior to being released on 17^th January 2010 (Artolachipe, 2012). However, despite the small scale of its operations, it is noteworthy that this organization has the potential of becoming a major threat to the establishment in Paraguay, especially when one considers the rapid advancements that have been made in the 21^st century that allow such organizations to thrive. This organization has participated in a diversity of activities that range from kidnappings to murders, including the brutal murder of the daughter of the former Paraguayan president Raul Cubas, Cecilia Cubas.

In order to tackle this new menace, the Paraguayan government has deployed thousands of soldiers as well as established a permanent state of emergency in the region where the EPP conducts its operations (Marsteintredet et al., 2013). Despite these efforts, the government has been unable to bring this small insurgency under control and instead, its operations seem to have expanded significantly to such an extent that the farming estates of the rich are increasingly being targeted. The Paraguayan twist of the Marxist, Leninist, and Guevarist ideology that the EPP follows is significant because it shows an organization that is essentially seeking out an identity for itself. It further allows it room for considerable improvement and expansion of its activities, as seen through the way that it has the potential for future growth and the attainment of influence over society. One of the most significant developments concerning this organization took place following the killing of Cecilia Cubas when Cristobal Olazar became a police informant in 2004 (Blair, 2015). Olazar had been a comrade of the founders of the EPP and as such proved invaluable in the provision of information concerning the organization and its ideology. It provided a means through which to ensure that there was the promotion of a scenario where there was a greater understanding of the EPP by the security forces, especially concerning its leadership.

Discussion

The EPP is an organization that considers itself to be a revolutionary one in the lines of FARC and others within the region. This has been seen through the ideology that it pursues as well as its activities, which have more often than not targeted the wealthy in Paraguayan society (McDermott, 2015). the latter has not been coincidental because of the belief by the leadership of this organization that it is the wealthy classes which are responsible for the poverty that it experienced by the indigenous people as well as the campesinos in the country. Thus, the EPP targets the wealthy as a means of pressuring them to reconsider their position in society and undertake the improvement of the lives of the poorer classes; an objective that seems to be its major priority. This has been seen through the way that it has sought to make sure that among the demands that it makes is the distribution of food and other basics to poor people by the families of the wealthy that have been kidnapped.

As has been seen in the literature above, the EPP has made its major focus attacking the security forces of Paraguay as well as the kidnapping of the wealthy in society. These two main targets are of significance because they are considered the root cause of the social and economic problems that a majority of Paraguayans faces. This is especially the case when one considers that it is the security forces’ support for the wealthy that has made possible the rise and continued dominance of the latter in the politics of the nation. Furthermore, the support that the security forces provided the various dictatorships in the country created an environment within which a small class of individuals was able to accumulate wealth and attain dominance over critical national resources while the rest of society languished in society. Thus, the EPP essentially blames the wealthy for the problems that plague Paraguayan society and because of this, they and their backers have become the main targets of its activities.

Conclusion

The EPP has risen during a period when organizations with similar ideologies have essentially lost a considerable part of their support in society. the relative success that it enjoys has come about because of the highly secretive manner it conducts its activities to such an extent that it has been able to make sure that it outmaneuvers the Paraguayan security forces in the latter’s counterinsurgency efforts. Thus, despite the military crackdown that has come about following the deployment of thousands of troops to the north of the country where the EPP is most prevalent, its activities seem to have continued without interruption, to such an extent that rather than losing support, this organization has essentially divided Paraguayan society. It is yet to be seen how the counterinsurgency efforts of the Paraguayan government will evolve as they tackle this new challenge to the status quo.

Domestic Terrorism

 

Domestic terrorism is a problem that has become quite prevalent in the modern world to such an extent that it is increasingly viewed as more of a threat than international terrorism. It can be defined as being a form of terrorism which involves individuals undertaking activities that targets their own countries. The significance of this situation cannot be underestimated because it involves individuals essentially seeking to ensure that their actions give public attention to them and to their cause. Moreover, it is a situation that is also known as homegrown because the perpetrators, targets, and venues can all be found within the same country (Enders, Sandler and Gaibulloev 319). Consequently, the logical consideration in this case is to determine the manner through which domestic terrorism takes place, including its origins as well as the perpetrators. It is also essential to make sure that the motivations of the perpetrators are considered because there are numerous grievances and causes for such terrorism. However, among the most prevalent acts of domestic terrorism come about because of radicalization, especially from a religious perspective, as well as lone wolf attacks, which happen because of grievances concerning a diversity of personal or social problems. This paper makes an analysis of a diversity of aspects concerning domestic terrorism, including such factors as radicalization and lone wolf attacks that have become quite prevalent in the United States in recent years.

Facts on Domestic Terrorism

Domestic terrorism is not a new occurrence and in fact, has been quite prevalent throughout modern history. However, it is noteworthy that incidents have become more prevalent since the end of the Cold War, as the military conflicts that have developed as a result have created an environment within which violent non-state actors have sought to carry put unconventional warfare (Aliyev 1973). The significance of this can be seen in the increase of terrorist attacks, as seen through the way that attacks in the United States have in recent years taken place. Furthermore, intelligence agencies have also successfully foiled a number of terrorist attacks through the use of intelligence collected by law enforcement as well as domestic intelligence. Furthermore, there has been an increase in the number of terrorist sites as well as the volume of literature on the subject since the 9/11 attacks. The former have ensured that a small but considerable number of American nationals have ended up becoming radicalized to such an extent that they have become more willing to ensure that they carry out terrorist activities against their compatriots and countries (Hardcastle 271-72). Websites that support terrorist activities have proliferated on the internet and these are readily available to citizens; helping to account for the increase in homegrown terrorist activities.

Lone Wolf Terrorism and Radicalization

Lone wolf terrorism accounts for a majority of domestic terrorism incidents and this is significant because it involves a scenario where individuals tend to act on their own (Spaaij 854). The perpetrators are usually those who are essentially social outcasts or those whose attempts at gaining acceptance from the rest of society have failed because of rejection. Beginning in the early 21^st century, there has been a prevalent of lone wolf terrorism that has been associated with individuals influenced by such ideologies as white supremacy, anti-government extremism, and Islamic fundamentalism (Springer 1). A consequence has been such attacks have not only become unexpected, but they have become a serious challenge for law enforcement because of the failure to discover some of these plots early so that they can be prevented. It is a sign of the considerable social problems that have plagued society in recent years, and the need to ensure that there are stronger social institutions to which individuals can turn in order to gain the support they need to prevent them from taking such radical actions. Understanding the motivations of individuals could also help in making sure that there is the establishment of policies aimed at identifying potential perpetrators and helping to steer them away from the path of terrorism through constant surveillance.

There are a number of criteria that can be used to identify and describe lone wolf terrorists. The have been proposed by Terry Turchie and Kathleen Puckett as they seek to ensure that there is an understanding of the circumstances that lead to these individuals taking on such harmful activities (Turchie and Puckett 240). These include the fact that the acts of terrorism are often planned by individuals or a group whose activities are not organized. Furthermore, the individual that undertakes such actions are willing to use deadly violence as a means of achieving their goals. Additionally, the primary goal of these lone wolves is usually religious, ideological, or political in scope, with the perpetrators often being radicalized in their views. However, it should be noted that there is no single pathway towards acts of domestic terrorism. While this may be the case, it is pertinent to consider that most of the perpetrators tend to be members of the military, high school dropouts, and those facing a range of financial problems (Ghatak and Prins 218). These individuals will often become radicalized through exposure to radical literature and videos as well as having suffered from discrimination, especially among those from minority communities.

Conclusion

The above discussion has analyzed a diversity of aspects concerning domestic terrorism, which include radicalization and lone wolf attacks that have become quite prevalent in the United States. The threat of domestic terrorism is one that is not to be underestimated, especially when one considers the increase in incidents since the beginning of the 21^st century from individuals that have either been radicalized or are essentially social outcasts that use terrorism as an outlet for their frustrations with society. The rise in incidents shows that there is a need to ensure a change in approach to social problems by policymakers in a way that allows for the creation of a more understanding environment that prevents the rise of domestic terrorists in future.