Terrorism

 

Definition of Terrorism

Terrorism is a concept that has come to have numerous definitions over the years. Some of these definitions are not only controversial, but also complex and as a result of the violence and ferocity that is witnessed in terrorism, this term has come to have considerable stigma attached to it. Terrorism is a term that was coined during the Reign of Terror in France following the French Revolution in the 1790s (Erlenbusch, 2015). It was used as a reference to the terror which was unleashed by the revolutionaries against their opponents as a means of bringing about the attainment of a state that they desired. The Reign of Terror was undertaken by the Jacobin party under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre through the use of the guillotine as a means of getting rid of their opponents through mass executions (Levine, 1978). Thus, in this usage, terrorism implies the use of violence by a state as a means of making sure that domestic opponents are subdued. However, the definition of terrorism came to take on a new meaning in the 20^th century, as seen through the way that it defines the violence that is aimed at governments in an effort to ensure that their policies are influenced or their regimes brought to an end. It is essential to consider that the aiming of violence in this case is undertaken through a process where the individuals involved take either direct or indirect action against governments.

It is important to note that terrorism is not legally defined in a diversity of jurisdictions, but in those jurisdictions where definitions exist; there are a number of common elements that can be considered critical to understanding this term. The most common element is that terrorism is a process that involves either the threat or the use of violence and seeks to ensure that an environment of fear is created not only among the main target, but also within a wider audience (Lutz & Lutz, 2008, p. 7). Terrorism is therefore heavily reliant on fear because it allows it to attain its objectives; a factor that greatly distinguished it from both guerilla and conventional warfare. This is especially the case when one considers that while in conventional warfare, there is an element of psychological warfare against opponents, the main means of making sure that victory is attained is through the strength of arms. Moreover, guerilla warfare often relies on acts of terror as well as a diversity of propaganda forms with the aim of making sure that there is the attainment of military victory, as seen in the way that the Khmer Rouge and Viet Cong were able to attain victory in Cambodia and Vietnam respectively (Conley, 1968; Fewster, 2000). However, the proper use of terrorism is aimed at making sure that there is the use of violence in a calculated manner as a means of generating fear and in this way allowing for the attainment of political objectives. Terrorism is often employed in circumstances where military victory is impossible in a direct manner, meaning that the individuals involved have to resort to generating fear among their opponents.

Terrorists often rely on the use of high profile, dramatic, and violent attacks. These are aimed at ensuring that they not only attract but also maintain the publicity that they need to enhance the fear that they seek to convey. Thus, they will engage in such actions as hostage taking, kidnappings, hijackings, car bombings, and suicide bombing as a means of attaining their objectives (De la Calle & Sánchez-Cuenca, 2015). The locations and victims of terrorist attacks tend to be carefully selected with the aim of making sure that they add to the shock value. Because of this, some of the most common targets tend to be transport stations, restaurants, schools, and shopping centers, among others, tend to be targeted because of the fact that they attract large numbers of people within the civilian population. These locations are also places where the people go there do not expect to get attacked and therefore feel safe. The major aim of terrorism in this case is to ensure that the public no longer feels safe when it comes to places in which they are familiar. Other major targets include buildings that have political or economic value, which ensures that there is the promotion of a scenario where these places are not safe. Examples of such places include military installations and embassies across the world. The sense of fear is used by terrorist organizations to ensure that the targeted population is induced into pressuring their leaders towards undertaking policies that are favorable to the terrorist organizations involved.

Some definitions will treat terrorist acts are simple criminal activity and do not consider the political motivations of these actions. An example of such a scenario is that of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States, which defines both domestic and international terrorism as being violent criminal acts (Bruce, 2013). This is significant because it involves the definition of terrorism as criminality, which can be problematic since there is no distinction when it comes to the different legal and political systems. Furthermore, this definition does not account for the potentially legitimate violent attacks against a government. One of the most prominent examples of the latter is that of the African National Congress, which undertook acts of terrorism against the oppressive, white-minority, apartheid regime that governed South Africa. While these were terrorist acts, they garnered considerable sympathy from across the world, with the result being that they were viewed as acts of defense rather than aimed at bringing about terror within society (Lutz & Lutz, 2011, p. 89). Another example that can be used is the Resistance in France, which was a movement against the Nazi occupation of France during the Second World War. Both of these actions, while technically terrorist in nature, were viewed as a form of self-defense and as such were considered legitimate by a majority of the world. They provided a means through which the oppressed peoples of South Africa and France were able to fight back against governments that did not have their interests at heart and instead fostered policies of considerable discrimination against them.

Beginning in the 20^th century, a number of countries have ended up engaging in international terrorism. This has for the most part been inspired by political opportunism as well as ideology (Margariti, 2017, p. 71), which have been based on the guise of supporting national liberation movements. Under such circumstances, it has become common for those considered terrorists by some countries to be considered freedom or liberation fighters by others. This has been the case in Syria, where most of the rebel groups, because of their engagement in terrorist activities, have come to be declared terrorists by the Syrian government. However, those nations that support the Syrian rebels, such as Israel, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the West in general, view these groups as being freedom fighters against their oppressive regime of Syrian President Bashar Assad (Rabinovich, 2017). This shows the blurring of the distinction between terrorism as other forms of violence that are political. This is especially the case when one considers the way that guerilla groups employ terrorist acts. These groups, while believed to be fighting for a greater or noble cause against a government that is not only more powerful, but also oppressive, make use of terror as a means of achieving their political objectives. The definition of terrorism in this case becomes problematic because it comes to depend on the jurisdiction and legality of the way that terrorism is defined. Thus, where in some countries, the violent actions of liberation groups is seen as legitimate, in others, they are defined as acts of terrorism; requiring condemnation.

The problems related with the definition of terrorism have therefore been tackled by scholars in the social sciences through a consideration of the victims. These individuals have come to define terrorism as being based not on the criminality of the act, but rather on the recognition that most of the victims of violence from terrorism tend to be innocent civilians (Blakeley, 2009). This is a highly flexible definition because it allows for the consideration of a wide range of individuals, including those who are not directly responsible for the oppression or grievance against the individuals carrying out the terrorist attacks. It is important to consider that there are instances where terrorism can be defined as being violence against individuals as a means of creating an overwhelming sense of fear. Such fear is a form of victimhood because it creates an environment where, despite political objectives and publicity for the terrorist organization being met, the long-term effects for the victims end up being dire. This is especially the case when one considers the loss of life and sense of fear that remains long after the act has taken place. The clandestine nature of terrorist activities is also significant because they end up causing great harm to individuals since the main targets tend to be those areas where there are a large number of people or where there are buildings or monuments of national importance for the targets. Civilian victims of terrorism attacks, because of their innocence, end up paying the costs of the actions of their governments; a sign of the unfairness and inhumanity of the act itself.

Terrorism has also come to involve the process of environmental destruction for political gain. This form of terrorism has come to be defined as eco-terrorism and it is a process where the destruction of the environment is undertaken as a means of forcing opponents to surrender. The latter situation was witnessed during the first Gulf War, which resulted in a scenario where the Iraqi forces were responsible for the burning of oil wells in Kuwait (Warbrick, 1991). Eco-terrorism has also come to define the actions that, while seemingly benign, such as the spiking of lumber trees in order to prevent logging, results in harm being caused to others. Thus, while actions aimed at seeking to prevent harm to the environment are laudable, there are instances where some activists will undertake criminal acts that result in a scenario where those who would cause harm to the environment have their lives endangered, or other forms of harm are caused to the environment. Consequently, these acts end up being considered terrorist in nature and carry penalties to the offenders since they have essentially conspired to deliberately cause harm to either individuals or the environment. In an era of environmental consciousness, it is likely that more acts of eco-terrorism will take place, with the result being that victims of such acts will greatly increase.

History of Terrorism

The use of terror as a means of attaining a diversity of political and social objectives has been prevalent throughout human history. This is especially the case when one considers that the use of terror, even state-sponsored terror, was an instrument of making sure that there was the promotion of an environment within which social control was attained. There has been widespread debate among scholars concerning the roots of terrorism and among the most prominent cases of the earliest recorded incidents that are considered include those acts carried out by such groups as the Sicarii Zealots and the Hashshashin (Hutchinson, 2007). Others in this case also include the Norodnaya Volya and the Fenian Brotherhood, groups that were prominent in the 19^th century (Revill, 2016). There is also a consideration of the Gunpowder Plot, which is one of the most prominent incidents because it involved an attempt to make use of gunpowder to target government institutions as a means of attaining political objectives. However, it is noteworthy that the numerous incidents that have taken place in history with the aim of making sure that there is the achievement of political objectives through terror are significant since they show that terrorism is a part of the human arsenal of political options. The latter is especially significant when it comes to the use of terror by individuals or groups that feel that they have been disenfranchised and do not have the power to ensure that they do something about it.

Among such groups were the Jewish Zealots, whose operations were focused in the Roman province of Judea in the 1^st century. These individuals were against Roman rule and believed that they could make use of terror as a means of provoking the Judean society to rebel against the Roman Empire and reinstating the independence of the Jews. An offshoot of the Zealots, known as the Sicarii, was formed by Judas of Galilee, and this took on a more extremist approach to the use of terror (Obakhedo & Igbinovia, 2020). The efforts of the Sicarii were to ensure that all Jewish collaborators with the Roman Empire were punished and therefore, these were their main targets. Among the individuals who were targeted were the Herodians, the Sadducees, temple priests, and the wealthy elites of Jewish society. The members of this group would make use of short daggers that were hidden under their cloaks and during large festivals would mingle with the crowds and then murder their victims (Lutz, 2005, p. 22). Once the act had been done, they would disappear into the crowds of panicked people, with the most successful of their operations being the assassination of the high priest, Jonathan. The significance of their actions is that it allowed for the spread of terror in Judean society since it ensured that those who were collaborators with the Romans not only became more careful with their actions, but it also created an environment within which it was considered dangerous to be a collaborator.

Another prominent group that needs to be considered are the Hashshashin, who rose to prominence in the 11^th century. An offshoot of the Ismaili sect of Shia Islam, this group was established by Hassan-I Sabbah, who was opposed to the Seljuk Turkish rule and was able, through the use of the Hashshashin militia, to capture a number of strategic fortresses across Persia and establish himself as one of the most influential individuals through the use of terror. Since the Hashshashin militia was too small to fight on an equal footing with it enemies, this group resorted to the use of terror as a means of making sure that it not only protected itself and members of the Ismaili community, but also ensure that useful alliances were formed to attain the same goal. The use of assassinations was the most prominent technique that was utilized by the Hashshashin, as seen through the way that in order to please an ally, Ridwan of Aleppo, the ruler of Homs, Janah al-Dawla, was assassinated (Obakhedo & Igbinovia, 2020). Moreover, it is important to note that this group also undertook acts of retribution through assassinations of those leaders that went against their interests. However, there were incidents when this group made efficient use of the threat of assassination as a means of attaining their objectives. Thus, the Hashshashins were greatly feared by their foes, which not only included the Seljuks, but also the crusaders who were at the time a powerful force in the Middle East. It is noteworthy that because of the actions of terror of the Hashshashin, they were able to enhance their influence and make sure that the Nizari Ismailis were able either forge useful alliances or make their enemies fear them enough that they became a reduced threat.

The Gunpowder Plot is another incident whose success would have caused considerable terror in society. This is because it involved a scenario where in 1605; Robert Catesby led a group of conspirators who sought to destroy the Parliament of England. This was to be done through the use of a large quantity of gunpowder, obtained by Guy Fawkes that was placed underneath the Westminster Palace (Edwards, 1997). The deaths of the king and the members of parliament of both houses would have created a massive power vacuum in society. The intention was to make use of the terror and confusion that resulted from the incident as a means of gaining control over England and, by extension, Scotland. This was to be done through gaining access to one of James I’s children and making them a puppet monarch that they could manipulate and ensure that there was the restoration of Catholicism. Luckily, the plot did not work and the conspirators were captured and executed. However, despite its not working, the intention of the conspirators can be considered to have been an act of terrorism because of the potential ramifications. This is especially the case when one considers that it would have been a form of religious terrorism, which would have allowed for the destruction of the entire political order of England. It would have further created an environment within which it was possible to undertake any actions that they deemed fit for the restoration to prominence of their faith and maintaining its dominance in society.

The Reign of Terror in France can also be considered a form of terrorism, in this case state terror. This is a form of terror that seeks to ensure that the population of cowed into following the rules or regime that is in power. The opposite of this form of terror is anarchism, which comes about because of the rise of nationalism. The latter was seen in the case of the assassination of two leaders, Tsar Alexander II of Russia and President William McKinley of the United States by anarchists (Rose, 1986). Anarchists in the 19^th century had access to relatively stable, powerful, and affordable explosives which they made use of as a means of spreading terror in society and causing anarchy. The global integration that took place in the same century resulted in a scenario where the influence of radical political movements, such as anarchism, became more enhanced. Anarchists considered dynamite as a critical aspect of their strategic thinking with the result being that they believed that it was one of the best means through which to create anarchy in society. In this case, terror was used as a means of promoting a radical political agenda that sought to undermine the foundations of societies and instead bring about change that was more desirable for the groups involved. In this way, anarchism came to be viewed as a form of terrorism by most governments that were affected based on the manner through which it took on an anti-capitalist stance, especially during the post-war period.

Revolutionary nationalists have also made use of terrorism as a means of attaining their objectives. This is especially the case considering the manner through which in the 20^th century, much of the political violence by these groups was directed against western powers. The most prominent case of this was the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which campaigned to make sure that there was the attainment of Irish independence from the British in the 1910s. This group made use of violence against British forces and interests in Ireland as a means of making sure that the British gave Ireland its independence. In this way, during the Irish War of Independence between 1919 and 1921, the IRA employed guerilla tactics against the British (Townshend, 1979). This included the use of raids, sabotage, and ambushes as a means of forcing the government of Britain to negotiate. It further ensured that there was the promotion of a scenario where it remained a major player in the Irish Free State, which was the part of Ireland that was given dominion status following the negotiations that had been forced through the violent actions of the IRA. The tactics used by the IRA played an important role in influencing such Zionist organizations as Irgun, Lehi, and Hagannah, as they conducted their guerilla war against the British Mandate in Palestine during the 1930s (Krause, 2013). It is also pertinent that the IRA inspired other groups, such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt to make use of assassinations and bombings as part of their tactics.

Prior to the First World War, the women’s suffrage movement in Britain undertook acts of violence as a means of achieving its objectives. While whether the violent actions of these individuals constituted terrorism can be seen as controversial, it is important to note that there was a considerable level of militancy within the movement. The actions that they undertook included civil disobedience and the use of bombings, arson, and the destruction of public property in order to gain the attention of the government. One of the most significant actions that the movement was done by the Women’s Social and Political Union, which bombed the house of the then minister, and future prime minister’s David Lloyd George’s house (Bearman, 2005). The significance of this action was that it was aimed at gaining the attention of the government of the time as a means of bringing about the attainment of women’s suffrage. This movement made use of attacks against prominent government figures as a means of bringing attention to their plight while at the same time making sure that there was the promotion of a situation where the fear of harm coming to them made the government figures more responsive to their demands. Thus, while there have been claims that the women suffragists had not really intend any harm, their actions would today be considered terrorist and did cause harm not only to the government officials that they targeted, but also to members of the public.

The use of terror was also used through the attempts of causing governmental instability. This is especially the case when one considers that some of the most notable assassinations of the early 20^th century were those of Umberto I of Italy and President William McKinley in 1900 and 1901 respectively. Political violence was especially rampant in Imperial Russia, where in the opening years of the 20^th century, a number of ministers were killed. One of the highest ranking individuals to be killed was the prime minister Pyotr Stolypin, who was killed in 1911 by Dmitry Bogrov, who had been a spy within the secret police and responsible for spying on various socialist, anarchist, and other revolutionary organizations (Henderson, 2012). The assassinations, especially in Russia, created an environment of instability and uncertainty that was advantageous to the various revolutionary groups that were involved in them. It was a sign of the manner through which a part of the population had ended up becoming fed up with the disenfranchisement of the majority of Russian in favor of a small elite. Consequently, the conditions favored the development of a revolution in the country that would culminate in the overthrow of the Russian monarchy and later in the establishment of a communist state, the Soviet Union. Therefore, the use of terror proved critical in bringing about desired change in society, although the positive change that resulted proved temporary because the coming to power of Stalin made the situation even worse than it had been under Imperial Russia.

Another important case of terrorism in the 20^th century was seen in the case of nationalist terrorist groups such as the Black Hand, as well as state-sponsored terror. The use of terror was seen through the way that the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist group, undertook to undermine Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia. One of the most significant actions that this group undertook was in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, who was the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo. The deaths of Franz Ferdinand, and his wife Sophie was one of the most dramatic events in Europe at the time because it not only took place during a period of heightened tensions between the European nations, but it also proved to be the trigger for the First World War that would end up killing millions of people (Beckett, 2013). It is also pertinent to consider the manner through which states made use of terror as a means of making sure that there was the promotion of their absolute authority over society. Nazi Germany, for example, made use of terror as a means of ensuring that there was the advancement of its cause of racial superiority as well as the subjugation of peoples in occupied nations such as Poland and France (Wachsmann, 2008). It is also noteworthy that the rule of Stalin over the Soviet Union also involved the use of state terror in unprecedented levels, as seen through the constant purges that were conducted against members of society who did not seem to conform to the expectations of the leader.

The final case that needs to be considered is that of the 9/11 terrorist attacks that took place against the United States in 2011. This event took place when 19 men affiliated to Al Qaeda ended up hijacking four commercial passenger jets that were bound for California and crashed one into the Pentagon and two into the World Trade Center in New York City, while the fourth crashed into an open field near Shanksville after the passengers in it overpowered the hijackers (Becker, 2002). The fourth plane had been aimed at either the Capitol or the White House, and while the last attack was not successful, the event in itself became one of the most devastating attacks on the United States since Pearl Harbor. This is especially the case when one considers that nearly 3000 individuals died in the aftermath and more than double that number ended up being injured as a result (Whittaker, 2013, p. 3). The terror that was felt in the United States saw massive support for the War on Terror that was launched by the Bush administration as well as the passing of the Patriot Act, which essentially expanded the powers of intelligence and law enforcement agencies. Consequently, the United States undertook an invasion of Afghanistan that was aimed at overthrowing the Taliban government in the country, which was at the time harboring the Al Qaeda leadership (Iqbal, 2018). Many countries across the world also undertook the passage of laws similar to the Patriot Act, with the result being that the war on terror became a global phenomenon.

Difference between Terrorism and Other Acts of Violence

There are a number of differences between terrorism and other acts of violence. The first of these is that the major intention of terrorism is to spread terror, which means that the acts are planned over time to ensure that they have the greatest effect possible on the target population (Primoratz, 1990). It is important to note that terrorism will often be used as a weapon with specific political objectives in mind meaning that its purpose is to pressure the targeted political class to change its behavior to favor the interests of the political organization undertaking the terrorist attacks. Other acts of violence, on the other hand, are not often planned and tend to take place on impulse. A consequence is that their impact varies, from being small in scale to actually being quite destructive to the lives of those affected. It is also important to note that other acts of violence are often considered to be a normal aspect of human social behavior, where there are often clashes between individuals in society because of differences between them. This scenario is significant because it completely differs from terrorism, which employs the use of violence for strategic purposes as well as to ensure that there is the creation of awareness concerning a diversity of grievances. Therefore, the latter shows a marked difference between terrorism and other acts of violence.

Another aspect of terrorist attacks that makes it different is that the attacks that are conducted tended to be very well coordinated. This is important because it provides an avenue through which to ensure that the effectiveness of the attack is maximized as much as possible (Tucker, 2001). As much of the targeted population is often sought out in order to ensure that there are more victims so that the violent event that takes place does not end up being ignored. This is the reason why following such events, it is common for terrorist groups to claim responsibility for the attacks that they have conducted. This is done to ensure that their cause is well publicized and also create an environment of terror since the population ends up not knowing what type of attack will take place next. However, other forms of violence tend not to be well coordinated and instead, they will often take place at random. Terrorist attacks therefore, have the means of making sure that the violence that takes place devolves into terror as seen through the way that the various actors, both political and social, have their attention gained by the terrorist organizations involved. In this way, it becomes possible to make sure that there is the creation of an environment in which a response from the target party is expected either in the form of a concession or aggressive action. Thus, it becomes possible for the terrorist organization to undertake its activities with the confidence that it will eventually attain its objectives, as seen through the level of terror that took hold of the United States following 9/11 (Becker, 2002).

Moreover, terrorist attacks tend to be aimed at either political leaders or military targets. This is important because it differs significantly from other forms of violence since the latter will often be undertaken between civilians and especially between individuals or parties that know each other well. The same cannot be said of terrorism, which seeks to ensure that there is the attainment of political objectives through the use of violence (Richardson, 2013, p. 30). Political leaders and the military in this case end up being targeted because they have the influence that is required to change policies to those that are desired. The case of the manner through which the various liberation groups such as Hezbollah undertake their activities against Israel is pertinent because its actions are often aimed at making sure that the latter changes its behavior, especially towards the Palestinians. The war between Hezbollah and Israel in 2006 came about because of the former kidnapping Israeli soldiers and holding them as a bargaining chip (Sobelman, 2017). Therefore, while other acts of violence do not necessarily target political leaders or the military, it is noteworthy that they will often not have any real ends behind them, unlike terrorism, which often have either political or religious objectives. Terrorist acts tend to have more significance because of the effect that they end up having on the psyche of the society that has been targeted.

In addition, terrorist attacks tend to be aimed at ordinary people, or civilians. This is based on the idea that attacks on civilians will send a clear message to their political class that their citizens are not safe (Gibbs, 1989); forcing the politicians to comply with the demands of the terrorist groups. Civilians, on the other hand, end up being pressured to push their governments to accede to the demand of the terrorist organizations involved because of the fear that they will end up being attacked again. Other forms of violence also target ordinary people, but while this may be the case, it is important to note that they differ from terrorism because such forms of violence do not have any meaningful objectives and could be undertaken at whim. The significance of this situation can be seen through the way that terrorist attacks tend to be taken with more seriousness than other forms of violence, with the result being that the governments involved will often seek to take rapid action to show their publics that they are safe and have nothing to fear. The rapid passage of the Patriot Act without much deliberation in Congress following the 9/11 attacks is a pertinent example of the effect that terrorism has on the political class as well as society (Wong, 2006). Furthermore, following these attacks, the profile of Al Qaeda as a global terrorist group was greatly enhanced to such an extent that it became the main target of the United States and its allies (Hanhimäki & Blumenau, 2013, p. 230). It is for this reason that in some countries, local terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda in Iraq, Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, and later Al Shabaab in Somalia ended up pledging allegiance to it.

It is also essential to note that other violent acts tend to take place at random, with the result being that there is improvisation among the parties involved. This is especially the case when one considers that in such violent acts, attacks tend to be personal, and as such, the weapons that are used are improvised. Consequently, there is a scenario within which violent acts end up being based on the emotional connection that individuals have towards their targets more than having any long-term goals, as is the case with terrorist attacks. It is also important to consider that terrorist attacks will often be well organized to such an extent that there is a consideration of the way that the attack itself will impact the society or political class of the state that has been targeted. In this way, it becomes possible for there to be premeditation, as seen above through the way that the members of the women’s suffrage movement undertook the use of terrorist acts as a means of attaining their agendas. The considerable power of terrorist attacks is therefore based on the manner through which it is able to spread terror in society, as seen through the way that it is able to influence the way that society feels about a diversity of political factors. In this way, terrorism has a greater impact on society than other forms of violence because of its ability to change public discourse through the use of and the threat of more violence.

Other forms of violence tend to be undertaken in a manner that is without regard for political goals. This is especially the case when it comes to the way that acts of violence, by such groups as white nationalists, tend not to be based on the attainment of political of political objectives. Instead, these individuals tend to make sure that there is the promotion of hate and discrimination based on misguided beliefs in racial or ethnic superiority. A consequence is that this form of violence is one that fails to consider any meaningful objectives and instead promotes a scenario within which very little change in society takes place. It is noteworthy to consider that terrorism, on the other hand, is a case that advances political goals with such objectives being supreme. Terrorism is made use of as a weapon of the weakest because the individuals involved are incapable of bringing about a level of military parity with their enemies. Instead, the use of terror is aimed at making use of public opinion to their advantage since it is through attacks against military and civilian targets that it becomes possible to not only gain public attention, but also attain a high level of publicity for the plight of the people that feel oppressed. An example is the way that the various Palestinian liberation groups have made use of terror, specifically against Israeli targets, as a means of gaining publicity for their cause (Bjørgo, 2004, p. 87). The significance of the terrorist activities can be seen through the way that they are not only planned, but also aimed at making sure that they achieve specific political objectives, unlike other forms of violence, which tend not to be focused and are instead based on emotion.

The Evolution of Terrorism

The evolution of terrorism in the 21^st century has come about mainly because of the considerable advantages that have developed. One of the most significant advantages to terrorist organizations is that the rapid advancements in technology, which has ensured that there is the promotion of their agenda without the input of massive resources in the endeavor. Consequently, it has become common for terrorist organizations to ensure that they are able to gain funding and other forms of support from a diversity of sources as a means of enhancing their activities and operations across the world. The manner through which Al Qaeda and Daesh have been able to enhance their activities in such areas as Syria and Yemen has come about mainly through the use of technologies such as social media to push their propaganda and to provide their supporters with the information that they need to make donations to their cause (Kendall, 2016; Lister, 2017). Therefore, one can say that the rapid technological advancements that have taken place in recent years have gone hand in hand with the evolution of terrorism, with the result being that terrorist organizations have essentially taken advantage of the situation to advance their own agendas. Most of the individuals that run these organizations are no longer averse to technology and instead, a new crop of leader has come up that seeks to ensure that there is the use of technology as a weapon against their targets.

It is also important to note that the rapid advancements that have been made in artificial intelligence, robotics, and other technological forms have resulted in a situation where changes in the character of conflicts are taking place. This is especially the case when one considers the manner through which terrorist organizations have ended up gaining access to technologies that were previously beyond their reach. Thus, smaller political entities such as terrorist organizations have at their fingertips considerable capabilities that can be applied to their cause. Even individuals currently have the capability for spreading considerable terror in society to such an extent that it has become common for terrorist organizations to ensure that they undertake a diversity of means other than traditional tactics in order to advance their objectives. Daesh is an example of a terrorist organization that has come to take advantage of modern technological and other advancements, including globalization, as a means of spreading its propaganda to enhance its cause. They have also established numerous fronts from which they are able to gain access to such significant game changers in conflicts such as the Toyota pickup trucks that were instrumental in the success of this organization in Syria and Iraq (Stoddard, 2020). Weapons are also gained in the same way and this has essentially fueled the conflict in the Middle East because Daesh ceased being just a terrorist organization, but also used its capabilities to spread terror as a means of gaining significant territories and establishing the so-called Islamic State. The highly advanced way that this organization continues to conduct its operations even after the loss of its territories in the Middle East is pertinent because it shows that it has evolved to such an extent that it can undertake the spread of terror in other ways.

The rapid dissemination of terrorist propaganda through social media has played an important role in the evolution of terrorism. This evolution has come about at both the domestic and international levels, as seen through the way that at the height of Daesh’s Islamic State, there was a significant increase in the number of lone wolf attacks in the West, as seen in the Paris, London, and other attacks especially in the United States (Combs, 2017). It has allowed for the establishment of means through which terrorist organizations can undertake their activities without any direct expense of liability towards themselves. The rapid increase in lone offenders is significant because it shows the manner through which terrorist organizations have been able to successfully make use of propaganda passed along in social media to enhance their image. In this way, groups such as Daesh have been able to not only gain new recruits, but have also encouraged individuals to take on attacks against their own communities or societies. The radicalization of individuals, especially the youth, is a significant step because it shows the capabilities of terrorist organizations to influence individuals in society has become quite immense. In this way, lone offenders are very difficult of investigate, identify, disrupt, meaning that they have become among the most prominent assets of these terrorist groups. The radicalization of individuals online results in a scenario where they can be mobilized to undertake violent attacks against the targeted society. Thus, these organizations are able to gain their objectives without investing in resources to ensure that the activities of the lone offender are facilitated, since they do not receive any guidance nor are they affiliated with any terrorist group. This evolution of terrorism has therefore resulted in a scenario where attacks are no longer meticulously planned and instead, there is the use of propaganda as a means of influencing others to carry out the agendas of the terrorist groups involved.

The internet and social media have come to play a prominent role in the promotion of both domestic and international terrorism. This is because extremist groups will often have an extensive presence on the internet, especially on social media, which ensures that they are able to disseminate publications, videos, and images that they desire their audience to observe. Through these media, these groups are facilitated in their ability to enhance their recruitment and radicalization agendas, especially among individuals that believe the extremist messages that they are promoting. The presence of young individuals in these terrorist groups who are also technology savvy ensures that they are able to better influence younger individuals in society. Both international and domestic terrorists have come to have unprecedented success when it comes to gaining virtual access to people living across the world as they make efforts aimed at enabling attacks on a diversity of targets. Daesh, for example, uses social media to encourage its supporters to carry out simple attacks whenever they are around the world; essentially creating an environment of uncertainty among members of society, especially those that live in the West or in places where there is perceived discrimination or oppression against Muslims. Moreover, Daesh successfully made use of social media to promote its agenda of gaining recruits to fight in its conflicts in Syria and Iraq. The ranks of its foreign fighters at the peak of its power were large; a sign of the success that the organization had had in the use of social media and other avenues on the internet. The significance of the message of Daesh can be seen by the way that it was able to resonate with supporters not only in the West, but also in other countries across the world. Also, the use of the internet and social media has expanded the operations of Daesh across the world, with local terrorist groups such as Boko Haram becoming provinces of the Daesh’s Islamic State. Thus, the evolution of terrorist organizations has taken on a new turn; one that seeks to essentially localize international terrorist agendas.