An increase in trade leads to peace

 

Globalization is one of the most significant aspects of the global economy and over the last century, has been able to bring a diversity of countries together. Developing countries and emerging markets have continued to integrate into the global trade network to such an extent that they have become an integral part of the way that nations interact with one another on a global scale.[1] World trade has increase rapidly since the middle of the 20^th century, and this is to such an extent that numerous countries have been brought together as a means of not only profiting from it, but also creating an environment that it predictable in order not to disrupt trade. There is a tradition among scholars, specifically in the social sciences, to attempt to understand the political, social, and economic consequences of globalization.[2] It is a topic that has been hotly debated over the decades to such an extent that it has come to involve both the general public as well as academia. This debate is one that considers the impact that globalization has had on income inequality, national identity, and economic growth, among other issues. The significance of this debate is based on the manner that globalization, and global trade, has come to change the lives of individuals across the world. This paper focuses on the way that trade integration plays a pivotal role in international relations, especially when one considers the way that it influences interstate conflict.

Military conflict can be extremely disruptive to trade and in the long term can end up impeding economic growth. This is especially the case when one considers the impact that conflict tends to have on international trade.[3] Conflict between countries has a tendency to reduce international trade because most of the resources of the nations in conflict will be diverted to the war effort rather than regular trade. A consequence of this situation is that there is significant damage to the economic welfare of not only the nations involved in the conflict, but other nations within the international system. It therefore becomes essential to consider that trade and conflict take on opposite roles because while trade ensures that there is a level of prosperity for the parties involved in it, conflict, on the other hand, creates an environment within which it becomes quite difficult for economic growth to take place. Instead, there is a scenario where the nations involved end up seeking to cripple one another at a military and economic level to such an extent that rather than having peace between them, there is a level of animosity which prevents them from undertaking joint economic activities. Therefore, trade at the international level seems to have some impact on conflict because it allows for the avoidance of conflict in order to ensure that there is the maintenance of economic ties that are deemed more beneficial.

One of the most important beliefs concerning trade is that an increase in international trade has the potential of reducing military conflict between nations. This is especially considering that most of the countries likely to get involved in conflict will have developed bilateral trade interdependence.[4] However, in a situation where there is the establishment of a level of control over the bilateral trade relations between nations, it becomes more difficult to determine whether or not they are likely to get involved in bilateral conflict. It becomes necessary to consider that global trade openness has to be done in a manner that is in the interests of all parties involved to such an extent that they are not willing to disrupt the status quo through conflict. Instead, trade openness has the potential of making sure that there is a level of trust between the parties involved since they do not seek to take advantage of one another but are rather in a bilateral relationship that is mutually beneficial. The importance of this scenario can be seen through the finding that trade openness has an impact that can be viewed negatively in respect to military conflict because the latter will often take place between nations that do not have a mutually beneficial trade relationship. However, if the relationship is beneficial, it becomes essential for them to maintain their economic interdependence because to do otherwise would mean significant losses.

The potential of an increase in trade costs due to bilateral conflicts leads to the avoidance of such conflicts. Trade costs that come about because of bilateral conflicts not only affect bilateral trade, but also multilateral trade. Thus, nations that are more dependent on the global economy are less inclined to become involved in war because to do so could potentially result in disruptions to their economies.[5] In this way, states that are economically open to others are more peaceful because they will often seek to avoid conflict through international institutions as well as the use of international law. In the process, these nations will also seek to apply good governance in such a way that provides them with a bureaucracy that is focused more on seeking to maintain trade openness while at the same time safeguarding the security interests of the nation involved through the enforcement of international law. These circumstances make is less likely for military actions to be taken; the latter being applied only as a last resort. However, there are instances where because of multilateral trade, there is a reduction in bilateral dependence, meaning that the potential of military conflict is increased because the nation involved could potentially trade with others even after disrupting its relationship with another due to military conflict. Therefore, an increase in trade can be seen as a double-edged sword because while on one hand, it promotes peace, on the other, it ends up creating an environment within which there is a lowering of the opportunity cost of getting involved in military conflict.

An increase in trade interdependence at a bilateral level in addition to global trade openness ensures that there is a reduction of the probability of military conflict. In this way, trade is a critical factor when it comes to the promotion of peace between states because there is a reduction of military conflict between trade partners.[6] Instead, other avenues for the resolution of conflicts between them are used to such an extent that there is little incentive to get into war. Additionally, bilateral trade interdependence between states has the potential of ensuring that they have open avenues of communication that they can exploit for the purposes of bringing about peace-promotion between them. Trade is therefore essential for peace promotion, especially among neighboring countries because of its ability to bring together individuals from these countries who share mutual interests. In this way, it becomes possible to make sure that there is the advancement of shared economic interests between states to such an extent that the incentive for them to get into open conflict is minimized. Thus, while bilateral trade plays an important role in promoting peace between neighboring countries, greater global trade ensures that there is peace between distant countries with trade connections. Trade, in general, ensures that there is the attainment of peace at both the regional and international levels; creating an environment of trust and openness that prevents war as a first option to the resolution of conflict.

Trade integration has a significant effect on conflict between nations. Thus, while bilateral trade has the potential of creating an environment within which conflict is avoided, the same cannot be said of multilateral trade because an increase in such trade will often lead to a situation where countries could get into military conflict. The case of the American invasion of Iraq in 2003 is important because it shows the manner through which the advent of multilateral trade created an environment within which a stronger power sought to take advantage of a weaker one in order to gain access to its resources.[7] However, despite the latter finding, it is important to consider that trade in general is a force for peace since it provides an avenue through which different states are able to work together to not only facilitate, but also expand it to their advantage. It further ensures that there is the creation of an environment within which shared economic interests are made use of as a means of attaining integration, as seen in the case of the EU, which was established on the basis of trade, and common values of its members. Increasing trade ensures that there is the establishment of bilateral and multilateral relationships that play an important role in bringing about greater global stability and peace since the parties involved are often not interested in disrupting trade.

An increase in trade, which has resulted in globalization, has created numerous avenues through which to promote peace. An example of such an avenue is through the way that bilateral trade interdependence has become one of the most significant aspects of the modern world.[8] This interdependence is an advantage because it allows for the promotion of peace between a diversity of nations. Trade ensures that there is the establishment of strong relationships between nations in such a way that there is greater cultural and political understanding at a level that would have otherwise not have been achieved without trade. Furthermore, neighboring countries that have a strong trade relationship are unlikely to get into conflict because of their mutual interest in maintaining their economic integration. The interconnectedness of nations through trade ensures that they are able to enhance their cooperation to such an extent that they are more willing to work together in the resolution of issues between them rather than resorting to hostilities, which end up being seen as unnecessary due to their potential to disrupt trade. However, it is noteworthy that while bilateral trade will promote peace between neighboring countries in an effective manner, the same cannot be said of distant countries. Instead, distant countries are more likely to enhance peace between them through participation in global trade, which involves greater trade openness.

The findings of the analysis above suggest that trade integration not only bring about economic, but political gains as well. This is to such an extent that trading partners will most often end up becoming political partners as well as they seek to make sure that they create avenues through which to enhance their economic cooperation. Economic cooperation inevitably leads to a level of political cooperation which plays a significant role in international politics, especially when one considers that there is less likelihood of conflict between these states because of the diversity of avenues open for their cooperation. Economic integration at both a regional and global level will often be initiated as a means of attaining both security and political goals. Under such circumstances, the economy becomes a security issue which is protected through the encouragement of cooperation between trading partners. An example of such a project, as seen above, is that of the EU, which was formed following the end of the Second World War with the aim of not only securing the European economy, but also prevent conflicts on such a large scale from happening again. It is therefore essential to ensure that there is the promotion of a greater understanding of the connection between an increase in trade and peace in future research.

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[1] Jong‐Wha Lee and Ju Hyun Pyun, "Does Trade Integration Contribute to Peace?," Review of Development Economics 20, no. 1 (2016): 327.

[2] Lang Ping, "How Trade Promotes Peace: A Case Study of Sino-Us Relations [J]," World Economics and Politics 11 (2006): 1; Charles H Anderton and John R Carter, "The Impact of War on Trade: An Interrupted Times-Series Study," Journal of Peace Research 38, no. 4 (2001): 445; Katherine Barbieri and Gerald Schneider, "Globalization and Peace: Assessing New Directions in the Study of Trade and Conflict," ibid.36 (1999): 388.

[3] Philippe Martin, Thierry Mayer, and Mathias Thoenig, "Make Trade Not War?," The Review of Economic Studies 75, no. 3 (2008): 865; Charles H Anderton et al., Globalization and Armed Conflict (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003), 31.

[4] Dale C Copeland, "Economic Interdependence and War: A Theory of Trade Expectations," International security 20, no. 4 (1996): 5.

[5] Massimo Morelli and Tommaso Sonno, "On Economic Interdependence and War," Journal of Economic Literature 55, no. 3 (2017): 1085.

[6] Johann Park, "Economic Interdependence, Polity Type, Conflict and Peace: When Does Interdependence Cause Peace and Cause War?," Journal of International and Area Studies 25, no. 1 (2018): 21.

[7] Gearóid Ó Tuathail, "“Just out Looking for a Fight”: American Affect and the Invasion of Iraq," Antipode 35, no. 5 (2003): 856.

[8] Saul B Cohen, "Global Geopolitical Change in the Post-Cold War Era," Global Geopolitical Change  (1991): 551; Rafael Reuveny and Heejoon Kang, "Bilateral Trade and Political Conflict/Cooperation: Do Goods Matter?," Journal of Peace Research 35, no. 5 (1998): 581.

Early interventions in the prevention of youth crime

 

Children from minority communities have been found to have issues with substance abuse as well as low academic performance. A result of this situation is that they have ended up becoming vulnerable mainly because of the considerable lack of opportunities and role models both at home and at school. It has become essential to make sure that early interventions are made to promote a reduction in the number of individuals from these communities that abuse substances. Furthermore, it has become critical that these interventions are made early in the lives of the children so that they can be able to grow up with the knowledge that substance abuse is wrong while also seeking to achieve greater objectives that will help them have a better standard of life. One of the most significant interventions that have been identified as being critical to the achievement of this objective is group counseling, which ensures that there is the development of significant change in the perception of minority children concerning the world and their place in it. A group counseling environment is also one that seeks to promote greater inclusivity in such a way that minority children do not feel out of place and are instead encouraged to become an essential part of the counseling process through active participation.

Group Objectives

There are a number of important objectives that are supposed to be achieved within the context of the group therapy process. These objectives are aimed at making sure that there is not only a reduction in the number of minority children that abuse substances, but also the promotion of an improvement in their academic performance. Therefore, one of the most important objectives of the group is to ensure that there is the development of an open environment within which the participants are able to talk openly concerning their personal and communal problems in such a way that ensures that there is the enhancement of an understanding of their backgrounds and how they can be helped (Ogrodniczuk & Piper, 2003). Furthermore, it is essential that there is the development of a level of diversity in the group process in a way that helps minority children from diverse backgrounds to interact effectively so that they can find out the common aspects concerning them. A discussion of the various problems that plague them in their daily lives helps in the identification of risk factors and through this process, it becomes possible for the counselor to provide the guidance necessary to alleviate the problems that are discovered.

Group Format

 Before the formation of the group, it is pertinent to make sure that there is the development of a group format. This format is aimed at promoting greater effectiveness within the group so that it can work towards supporting the counseling of the participants. One of the most important considerations that have to be made is the need to promote diversity, and this process should be conducted in a way that promotes the inclusion of children or individuals from different communities and backgrounds (Thomas & Pender, 2008). Furthermore, there is need to determine the size of the group, and in this case, it is essential to make sure that the membership of the group does not exceed twenty individuals. It is also necessary that there is the enhancement of group effectiveness through setting duration for the sessions as well as their frequency. This group will need to have sessions for at least three months, which should be conducted twice a week. Finally, the group will need to be closed because it is critical for the participants to get to know one another well and to become used to each other; a process that is likely to be difficult if new participants come in frequently.

Group Leadership and Counseling Theory

The counseling theory that will be used within the group is the narrative therapy because it is an extremely effective way of reaching the participants. This is because the narrative therapy is one that essentially adopts an approach that does not blame individuals, and is instead quite respective towards them to such an extent that it promotes these individuals as the ones who really know themselves (Hayward, 2003). This is a critical approach, especially for children from minority groups who, if another approach is used, could end up feeling as if they are being judged or misunderstood. Furthermore, it is essential that the narrative therapy approach is used because it promotes a view of problems that is separate from the individuals involved, and this is pertinent to the group counseling process because it makes the participants use their own skills, competencies, and values in order to bring about a reduction of the influence of various problems that they might have over their lives. This approach also requires that there is a single leadership style because it ensures that there is a single figure of authority within the group that all the participants look up to. In this way, it will be possible to make sure that there is the promotion of a situation where there is few leadership or counseling conflicts while at the same time enhancing the trust of participants.

Ethical Group Practices

It is necessary that the group leadership is conducted in as a professional manner as possible through the observation of the regulatory requirements that have been set. Furthermore, it is essential that the interests of the participants of the group are given the most priority because it ensures that there is not only an enhancement of their positive development, but also promotes a situation where they have good attitude towards the counseling process. Moreover, there is need to make sure that the counselor is aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the group because it helps them to become a better manager of a diversity of participants (Thomas & Pender, 2008). This achievement cannot be underestimated because it promotes the development of strong initiatives aimed at making sure that the counseling sessions are highly successful. It is critical that the counselor makes an assessment of themselves before undertaking the process in order to find out their capabilities and bring about an understanding of how their beliefs and values can have an impact on the participants of the group (Thomas & Pender, 2008). It is also essential that there is the development of means through which to make an assessment of the group environment in such a way that promotes a multicultural environment for the individuals that participate in the group.

Summary of Diversity Integration

It is necessary to make sure that there is the establishment of diversity within the group because it is the best means of helping in the achievement of its objectives. The integration process should be conducted in such a way that promotes the development of strong relationships between the participants so that they can be able to come to terms with the issues that are common among them. Furthermore, there is need to promote a situation where there is the inclusion of individuals from a diversity of minority communities so that they can be able to consider the diverse challenges that their communities face. A consequence of the implementation of such an initiative is that there will be greater integration within the group because it ensures that there is the achievement of an environment of safety and ease among the participants (Kivlighan Jr & Tarrant, 2001). It is also necessary to make sure that there is the consideration of those aspects that are involved in the creation of an effective group such as the number of participants as well as the cultural and ethical factors that might influence the way that participants will respond to the counseling sessions.

Conclusion

The process of structuring the group and determining the theory that is to be used in the counseling sessions is an essential one in promoting its efficiency. It is therefore essential for the counselor to make sure that there is the development of initiatives aimed at not only enhancing group integration, but also the development of a multicultural character that is necessary for the achievement of diversity. Finally, it is pertinent that the counselor is able to make an assessment of his capabilities as well as the structure of the group in order to develop a more efficient way to help minority children avoid substance abuse, and enhance their academic performance.

Domestic Violence and its effect in society

 

Domestic violence is an issue that has an effect on all individuals in society because men, women, and children are affected. It occurs on all manner of relationships individuals might be in and this might be sexual or familial. While this may be the case, in most instances, it is women who are victims, and this is especially the case in highly patriarchal societies or communities, where women tend to be disenfranchised (Childress, Gioia, & Campbell, 2017). Moreover, it also takes place in the most unexpected of places, such as in the West; although most cases that take place end up being unreported. Thus, the development of an understanding of domestic violence is critical towards the development of clear initiatives aimed at reducing occurrences and promoting healthy relationships between individuals. This paper seeks to make an analysis of domestic violence, its occurrence, and the causes.

Domestic violence is defined as an individual using a diverse means to achieve control over another. These means can include physical, sexual, psychological, or emotional abuse, and in most instances, women and children tend to be the most abused. Women are especially victims because they are looked upon as the weaker sex and have had the patriarchal order imposed on them (Childress et al., 2017). The depiction of women in video games, magazines, and other media in a negative way has helped degrade their position in society further. Because of this situation, it has become common for women to become the biggest victims of domestic violence, although in recent years, there has also been an increase of men who have reported being abused. This comes in the backdrop of domestic violence increasingly being seen as a problem that affects many relationships, with both men and women falling victim to it.

Domestic violence is caused by a diversity of issues and these tend to be based on a feeling of lack of control over everyday matters. One of the most significant causes of domestic violence is stress, which affects a considerable number of individuals because of the pressures of daily life (Anderberg, Rainer, Wadsworth, & Wilson, 2016). For example, a breadwinner in a family might end up becoming stressed because of their inability to provide effectively for their dependents. A result is that they might end up taking their stress or guilt on their spouses or children in the form of hitting or yelling (Katz, 2015). These cases tend to be the most common when it comes to domestic violence, and it has the effect of having a negative impact on both the perpetrators and their victims. Since it occurs among individuals with close or intimate relationships, it becomes difficult for both parties to recover effectively enough to resume the relationship they had before the violence begun.

Another cause of domestic violence is the abuse of alcohol or drugs, which has the effect of interfering with the judgment of the users. A consequence is that these individuals end up in a situation where they get into their homes under the influence (Anderberg et al., 2016). These circumstances are extremely pertinent when it comes to the analysis of domestic violence because many things can happen. For example, the individual who abuses alcohol or drugs can turn violent and take such actions as hitting or sexually abusing either their spouses or children. The individual does not realize what he is doing because he is under the influence and once the effect of the abused substance gets finished, he ends up having feelings of remorse and shame. The continued abuse of substances can end up creating a situation where violent episodes continue to occur at the domestic level.

There are also instances where the abuser makes use of domestic violence as a means of maintaining control over their victims. This can be a child or any other member of their family and it involves the use of violence in order to create a sense of fear in their victims (Callaghan, Alexander, Sixsmith, & Fellin, 2015). The use of violence is often in addition to using other means of control including guilt and shame to force their victims to accept their wishes (Perrin, 2017). Under these circumstances, domestic violence becomes a cycle that involves what the perpetrator is feeling at different times. There are occasions where the violence is either continuous, or ends up taking place after long periods of time. The perpetrator may end up having feelings of guilt or blaming their actions on other aspects such as drunkenness but over time, the violence becomes a cycle.

In conclusion, domestic violence is a serious problem that needs to be tackled efficiently in order to bring it to an end. There needs to be the development of initiatives aimed at making sure that problems are identified and solved early enough before they escalate to violent situations. The discussion above has shown that domestic violence has a negative effect on both victims and perpetrators. This is because they both end up becoming a part of violent cycle that involved physical and psychological harm that makes it difficult for both of them to have healthy relationships.