How globalisation has affected organised crime

 

Globalization has been recognized as a powerful force that has led to the integration of cultures, ideas, and products at an international level. It has been able to make sure that it takes advantage of the current communication and transport infrastructure to enhance the manner through which individuals across the world interact. The result has been that there has developed a level of interdependence at an international level that has never been seen before in history. It has further promoted the enhancement of global poverty alongside prosperity, which has become a paradox because while some individuals have reaped great benefits from globalization, others have ended up becoming its biggest victims. One of the most unfortunate developments in the contemporary world as a result of globalization has been the advancement of OCS at an international level. These organizations have been able to take advantage of the lack of strong international governance to make sure that they are able to get involved in various criminal activities at an international level and at great profits. Furthermore, their activities have taken advantage of the spread of global poverty as a means of bringing about the expansion of their influence on a global scale. The lack of official information concerning the influence of OCS at an international level has made it virtually impossible for governments to fight them effectively. Globalization has become one of the most significant contributors to OCS attaining an international level and this has led them to expand their activities to a transnational level.

The inequality that has been brought about by globalization cannot be underestimated because it has affected individuals across the world, especially in developing countries. It has led individuals affected by poverty to become involved in illegal businesses in order to survive (Enamorado, López-Calva, Rodríguez-Castelán, & Winkler, 2016). Among these businesses are those that are associated with OCS which facilitates the development of a situation where they are able to make ends meet. Some of the OCS are responsible for human trafficking and these have sought to take advantage of those individuals affected by poverty so that they have ended up in a situation where they are forced to give up large sums of money in order to be smuggled into the countries that they desire. The trafficking syndicates do not usually keep their promises to the people that they smuggle because in some cases, they gain considerable power over them. Instead of setting them free once they arrive at their destination, it is common for OCS to take advantage of these individuals in such a way that they not only end up providing free labor for many years, but they are also deprived of their rights and at times even sold into prostitution (Shelley, 2011). The failure of the international system to make sure that there is the advancement of the rights of individuals has made it possible for OCS to take advantage of the vulnerability of the poor, and paint glorious pictures of quick wealth in developed countries, which makes these individuals become victims. Among the people who have become the most victimized are those coming from Latin America with their final destination being the United States. Another group of individuals that are often victimized are often those from the war zones of the Middle East, who seek to reach Western Europe in order to improve their economic situations. Under these circumstances, OCS have attained a level of prominence in the human trafficking business that it has become essential for international organizations and institutions to address these issues urgently.

Drug dealing at an international level has also become a lucrative business for OCS because of globalization. This is because globalization and the development of a shared culture has ushered in an age where there is greater demand for drugs such as cocaine and heroin in the market (Bagley, 2004). The OCS have taken advantage of this situation to ensure that they undertake to supply these drugs to the global market. The lack of any significant intergovernmental cooperation when it comes to the war on drugs has made it virtually impossible for governments to curb the growing power of OCS. Instead, the latter have been able to spread their influence into those countries in the world where they were previously not present. Furthermore, they make use of the globalized communication infrastructure to not only organize their operations, but also make use of the transport infrastructure to distribute the drugs (Bagley, 2012). The result has been that OCS have been able to attain a hold over their desired markets and these has led to a considerable increase in their influence on a global scale. The proceeds from the trade in drugs are at times used in investments into legitimate businesses, which often act as fronts for money laundering.

The trade in counterfeit goods has also become a lucrative one for OCS because they are able to make use of the same channels as legitimate ones in order to put their goods into the market. There has been the expansion of these criminal activities to such an extent that it has become common for OCS to distribute counterfeit goods, especially in developing countries. The relative success of these organizations has come about because of the considerable lack of effective regulations when it comes to the implementation of international laws (Hennigs et al., 2015). Furthermore, the failure of effective intergovernmental cooperation has made it possible for OCS to improve their reach into markets that have traditionally been dominated by legitimate businesses. OCS have become involved in the trafficking of firearms, rare artifacts, among others through taking advantage of the forces of globalization that make it possible for legitimate businesses to thrive. The failure by regulatory authorities has made sure that OCS are able to thrive in a globalized environment in such a way that they have attained competence when it comes to overcoming those authorities that regulate the movement between national borders. Globalization has essentially made it possible for OCS to thrive alongside legitimate business, and this can be considered one of the most significant failures of this aspect of the contemporary world.

The deregulation of global trade has made it possible for OCS to thrive because there is little regulation over the movement of goods and services. Most national governments, because of the reduction of regulation at an international level, have found it quite difficult to contain OCS and these have taken advantage of this situation to make sure that they are able to achieve their criminal objectives. The lack of regulation has made it possible for OCS that are involved in the trafficking business to expand their influence to such an extent that they have been able to gain a grip over a considerable chunk of the global illegal trade (Andreas, 2011). These organizations have also taken advantage of the deregulated financial system to not only move funds, but also to launder their proceedings from illegal businesses. The deregulated financial system as well as global trade has made it more convenient for OCS to make sure that they are not only able to undertake their activities unchecked, but also to bring about a situation where they are able to participate in transactions that, while illegitimate, cannot be controlled by national governments. Through these transactions, these entities have been able to rake in massive profits while at the same time avoiding the scrutiny of global organizations, which are responsible for a diversity of regulations.

The advancements that have been made in the technological field have greatly enhanced the ability of OCS to function at an international level. This is because the technology is made use of for planning of their operations so that it becomes possible for them to not only bring about the achievement of their goals, but also the spread of their influence across the world (Pinotti, 2015). The use of these technologies make it possible for OCS to not only cultivate new markets, but also to maintain touch with the ones that they have already established because it is one of the best means through which to make sure that communications are handled in an effective but anonymous manner. The introduction of legislation with the aim of making sure that the illegal activities of OCS are curbed tend not to be effective because communication technology has become so advanced that these organizations are able to make sure that they can avoid the consequences of the laws that have been passed. Governments have come to have a hard time bringing the members of OCS to justice because the process is often one that is hindered by the international nature of their operations. Instead, these organizations have ended up in a situation where they are not hindered by most government activities against them. Instead, they are placed in a position where they can easily bend the international rules to suit their activities and this in such a way that these activities are hidden from governments and regulatory authorities at an international level.

The operations of OCS at the international level have been greatly enhanced through the increased mobility that individuals enjoy in the globalized world. It has also led to the interaction between individuals from different cultures and backgrounds, which has brought about a situation where it has become possible for OCS from different countries to coordinate their activities in such a way that they take advantage of the current globalized world (Varese, 2011). It has also ensured that there is the establishment of means through which to ensure that the cooperation between OCS makes it possible for these organizations to maintain a veneer of legality despite the fact that they are actually conducting illegal business. This level of cooperation has also led to the development of new areas within which OCS can have operations, as seen in the manner that they operate international cybercrime operations which often end up bringing them a lot of money in ransoms that are paid by individuals whose computer systems and networks are being held at ransom.

In conclusion, the international level of operations that OCS have specialized in can be considered one of the benefits that globalization has given to organized crime. This has been to such an extent that these organizations have been able to thrive in an environment that has otherwise brought with it many positive changes to society. It is expected that unless the international governance system is enhanced, OCS will continue to thrive in the globalized world.

Henry IV of England

 

Henry IV was born to John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster in 1367, a grandson of Edward III through his father, who was the latter’s fourth son. His mother was the heir to the extremely wealthy duchy of Lancaster, which included significant land holdings that made Lancaster the richest duchy in England. Thus, when Henry inherited the duchy of Lancaster, he not only became the biggest landowner in England, but also the most powerful man in the country after the king, his cousin, Richard II. Henry was an extremely charismatic leader who had a considerable following from among the populace. Furthermore, despite being a part of the French Plantagenet dynasty, he became the first English monarch since the Normal conquest to use English as his native language.[i] He also exercised a lot of influence in the country to such an extent it would play a critical role in bringing about his ascension to the throne later in life.

One of the most significant factors concerning the future Henry IV was his rebellions against Richard II, his cousin. While his father, John of Gaunt, had an extremely stable relationship with Richard II, the same cannot be said of Henry, who had a tumultuous relationship with his cousin. A consequence of this situation was Henry got involved in a rebellion against Richard II known as the Lords Appellant rebellion of 1387.[ii] While the rebellion was defeated, Henry ended up being spared execution on account of not only being a member of the royal family, but also a very close relative of the king. Instead, rather than being executed, he was raised to the duchy of Hereford. His elevation to the duchy and being spared execution seems to have pushed Henry to leave the country, leading to his exploring Europe; campaigning with the Teutonic Knights in their efforts to Christianize the Lithuanians, as well as undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.[iii] Following his return to England, he made a remark that came to be interpreted as treason and while this act was supposed to be resolved through the use of a duel of honor, Richard II, on the advice of Henry’s own father, banished Henry from England. The latter decision can be considered a part of the significant rift that existed between Henry and his father and the manner through which John of Gaunt sought to control his son’s actions. It is also likely that John sought to win the favor of Richard II so that his nephew could provide him with the support he needed to acquire the throne of Castile; which he pursued in the name of his wife, Constanza of Castile.

The problems between Richard II and Henry of Lancaster came to a head when John of Gaunt died. Following his uncle’s death, Richard II nullified the documents that automatically accorded Henry the rights to his Lancastrian inheritance; requiring that Henry request for his inheritance in person. This situation did not go down well with Henry, with the result being he approached the former archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Arundel, who had participated in the rebellion of the Lords Appellant. Arundel provided Henry with the support to invade England, timing their invasion during a time when Richard II was away in Ireland.[iv] Richard II ended up being forced to abdicate and was imprisoned, where he would die weeks later, and although the cause of death has yet to be determined, the most likely cause may have been starvation. It was following Richard II’s death that Henry’s rule began in earnest but while this may have been the case, his reign was also marked by a number of rebellions.

Rebellions against Henry IV often came about because of the common belief that Richard II was not actually dead. Therefore, the rebellions were means to ensure Richard II was placed back on the English throne. Two major rebellions of note have to be considered and these are in Wales and in Northumberland. In Wales, the uprising was led by Owain Glyndwr in 1400, who essentially sought Welsh independence through his declaration of himself as the Prince of Wales.[v] In Northumberland, the rebellion was led by the Percy family, which held the earldom of Northumberland and was tasked with the defense of the northern part of England against Scotland.[vi] While both rebellions ended up being put down by the forces loyal to Henry IV, they represented the relative instability of his reign based on his more distant claim to the throne as well as the manner through which he had taken it from his predecessor.[vii] It may also have been an indication of the considerable support that Richard II continued to have despite the fact of his death; which many of his supporters did not believe had happened.

The later life of Henry IV is one that saw the king essentially withdraw from public life. This came about because of a disfiguring disease that made him become a recluse. A result of this situation was his son, Henry, Prince of Wales, was given control of the government, which he ran alongside a council.[viii] The king was wary of his son, who he believed was too eager for the throne, but while this may be the case, the Prince of Wales effectively took power from his father during the latter’s lifetime. The debilitating disease, as well as the skin disease that he suffered from, ensured that his reign would come to a discomfiting end since despite having seizing the throne from his cousin; he was unable to enjoy his gains. Not only was he forced to withdraw from the public and become a recluse, he ended up bowing to the inevitable when he was forced to surrender his power to his son, who would eventually ascend the throne as Henry V following his death in 1413.

In conclusion, Henry IV displayed considerable ambition, which was reflected through his behavior towards his cousin, Richard II. While he was able to achieve his goal of gaining the throne, his rule was a period of turmoil in England because rather than promoting stability, it would eventually plant the seeds of the civil war that would come to be known as the War of the Roses. The latter war not only split the Plantagenet family, but it would also lead to its doom because the family would be supplanted by the Tudors. Therefore, while Henry IV’s reign may have begun with promise, it created the conditions that would make the country extremely unstable due to the rival claims to the throne by the different branches of the Plantagenet dynasty.

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[i] Isabelle Janvrin and Catherine Rawlinson, The French in London: From William the Conqueror to Charles De Gaulle (Bitter Lemon Press, 2016), 16.

[ii] Bryan Bevan, Henry Iv (Springer, 1994), 6.

[iii] Chris Given-Wilson, Henry Iv (Yale University Press, 2016), 66.

[iv] Bevan, 51.

[v] Anthony Goodman, "Owain Glyn Dwr before 1400," Welsh History Review= Cylchgrawn Hanes Cymru 5 (1970): 67.

[vi] JMW Bean, "Henry Iv and the Percies," History 44, no. 152 (1959): 212.

[vii] Peter McNiven, "Legitimacy and Consent: Henry Iv and the Lancastrian Title, 1399-1406," Mediaeval Studies 44 (1982): 470.

[viii] "The Problem of Henry Iv's Health, 1405-1413," The English Historical Review 100, no. 397 (1985): 747-48.

Is Artificial Intelligence a Threat?

 

In the contemporary world, human beings are increasingly living longer and healthier lives than was the case decades ago. This is an important measure because it shows that despite some of the problems that are prevalent within it, the world has become a better place for human beings. However, despite this being the situation, the headlines in newspapers and other media tend to show considerable human suffering, to such an extent that there seems to be little hope in the world. Challenges such as climate change, rising sea levels, and the threat of mass extinction from the political and climatic instability that have become prevalent in the world have created a highly pessimistic attitude towards the future. While this may be the case, it is essential to consider that humans are increasingly developing new technologies in order to ensure that there is the achievement of the ideal lifestyle. Among the most prominent of these new technologies is artificial intelligence (AI), which is predicted to have a considerable impact on the lives of humans in future. AI is an essential technology because its advancement will ensure that there are numerous benefits for humanity. It has the potential of making sure that such activities as weather predictions and cancer diagnoses, as well as other critical aspects of human society are made much easier.

AI is the technology of the future and its fullest potential is yet to be unlocked. It brings with it numerous opportunities and challenges, with the former being more pertinent than the latter. The opportunities presented by AI are among the most important when it comes to making sure that humans end up not only surviving on the planet, but also undertaking tasks that are critical. Prominent individuals such as Bill Gates have sought to promote the idea that AI provides an opportunity for humans to be more creative and productive than is currently the case. However, Elon Musk, on the other hand, promotes the idea that AI has the potential of ending up posing an existential threat to humans (Bentley, Brundage, Häggström, & Metzinger, 2018). While these two individuals differ on the characteristics of AI and whether it is a threat, they both agree that AI is the technology of the future and it will end up becoming an inseparable part of human life. Therefore, rather than seeing AI as a threat, it is necessary for individuals to make sure that they undertake a reflection on the manner through which this technology can be managed in such a way that rather than posing a risk to humanity, it can be a means of providing considerable benefits (Boden et al., 2017). AI is not just a matter of the future, but has become a critical aspect of the lives of individuals across the world. Thus, for better or for worse, AI is and will continue to be a part of the lives of humans, and this is to such an extent that it will likely end up playing an important role in such important aspects of life such as the administration of the criminal justice system.

In addition, rather than being a threat, AI is a highly competent technology which has the ability of executing a large number of tasks at a rapid pace. This is an ability that is beyond most humans, because the latter often need a lot of time and resources to accomplish even the simplest of tasks. AI is important because it has the ability to overcome the cognitive and organizational limitations displayed by humans and instead handle many tasks in a very short time with limited resources. A consequence of this reality is that humans are in need of AI in the process of making sure that tasks that are beyond them can be accomplished not only at a faster pace, but also in a more competent manner with few errors. The latter process, however, should not be considered a threat to the human workforce, because contrary to popular belief, humans are still a necessary aspect in any organization, even if they adopt AI (Yudkowsky, 2008). AI is only considered a threat because of its ability to undertake tasks at a faster pace, but while this may be the case, it is necessary to consider that there is need for humans in the same work environment in order to undertake a diversity of tasks that not only require reasoning, but also a physical touch. AI can be made use of in a diversity of contexts, which is critical in the contemporary world. Under such circumstances, AI is a technology that can complement humans, and its use, not only in the workplace setting, but also in the social environment, could go a long way towards not only improving lives, but also making life much easier for individuals.

Also, the appropriate application of sophisticated AI systems can help in the resolution of numerous intractable societal problems and conflicts. AI systems can be used in the promotion of resolutions to collective action problems, which are among the most prevalent in the contemporary world (Bentley et al., 2018). This is especially the case considering that there is a constant need to make sure that there is the promotion of a situation where there is the improvement of coordination between diverse groups in a bid to achieve similar goals. Coordination between different parties is often required to ensure that there is the effective achievement of common goals. However, it is human nature to be competitive as a means of making sure that individual goals are achieved at all times. However, the use of AI is critical in making sure that there is the achievement of common goals, in such a way that makes it possible to make seemingly unattainable goals a reality. It is often difficult to monitor human behavior and to detect defects in them in order to ensure that work takes place as expected. While this may be the case, it is noteworthy to consider that the use of AI can bring about considerable improvements, in such a way that makes sure that there is the promotion of effective means of detecting human behavior, especially the ones that might prove negative to the achievement of the tasks that are being carried out, especially in a project or within activities in the workplace. Moreover, AI can play a pivotal role in the establishment of means through which governments coordinate their activities within international institutions. While human intentions tend to be concealed within opaque minds, the same cannot be said about AI, which, because of its openness can be able to ensure greater accountability.

It is pertinent to consider that while AI is applied in a diversity of ways, one of the most pertinent is in government surveillance. This is an extremely important activity because it involves a process where there is the promotion of the interests of the public. Among these interests is security, which is a critical element of the role of government, with AI ensuring that there is the establishment of means through which monitoring on individuals, especially those who are either suspected of crime, or terrorism, to such an extent that they end up being prevented from undertaking some of their activities. However, while this may be the case, it is essential to consider that AI is often abused by governments and companies in such a way that they encroach on the privacy of individuals. A consequence of this situation is that it ends up leading to accusations of AI being out of control and the argument that it should not be used in any form of monitoring. The latter case is one that can be considered to be false, because it is the users of AI, rather than AI itself, who are responsible for its abuse (Epstein, 2015). AI is an extremely useful technology when it comes to ensuring that there is the promotion of effective security, and this is especially the case considering that AI can be made use of as a means of monitoring areas of potential cooperation, such as arms control and cybercrime. It is also essential to consider that while AI can be abused, it is mostly used for the achievement of good objectives and is a tool and not intelligence all on itself, because its major controllers are humans. Thus, AI is not the threat that it is made out to be, and to consider it to have the potential of facilitating abuse of the privacy of individuals by governments and companies is not true.

AI is an essential tool when it comes to the process of unlocking a society that is based on ethics and leisure for individuals within it. Predictions have shown that AI is going to play a critical role in making sure that there is the automation of jobs (Lawrence, 2017). The automation of human jobs will ensure that the individuals involved have more time in their hands to undertake activities that they enjoy. Instead of taking over human jobs, AI is a tool which will ensure that there is the promotion of the goal of bringing about significant changes to the work environment (Russell, Hauert, Altman, & Veloso, 2015). AI will not replace human workers, and instead, the latter will have to be present in the workplace to ensure that the AI systems are working properly. As the ultimate controllers of these systems, human workers will require to develop new skill sets aimed at making sure that they advance the skills that they already have to encompass the involvement of AI in their work environment. While the time period before the automation of all human jobs has still not been determined, it is noteworthy to consider that with automation, human workers will have more leisure time. Instead of being a threat to jobs, AI will ensure that there is the establishment of a new type of society, where there is the renegotiation of the social contract in such a way that leaves humans at an advantage. A new social contract would involve the establishment of stronger ethical requirements within society, in such a way that individuals would be helped by AI to undertake their work in a manner that is as efficient as possible, while at the same time allowing for the continued presence of humans in the workforce as controllers and supervisors of the AI systems.

AI is the technology of the future and it is here to stay. Therefore, it is necessary to make sure that there is an understanding of the way that this technology is going to expand its influence across various aspects of the lives of individuals. However, this technology should not be viewed as a threat because it is one that, despite its seemingly independent nature, is actually under the direct control of humans. This means that even in a situation where jobs and other functions increasingly become automated; there are instances where there will be a process that seeks to involve humans in the workforce. In addition, the automation of various aspects of human life has the potential of triggering a new type of society, where individuals within it agree to a new system that enhances the human role (Chui, Manyika, & Miremadi, 2015). For example, governments could end up agreeing to create a value in work, and that paid work should continue because it is one of the ways of enhancing its value. A consequence of this situation is likely to be that humans will end up seeking to undertake activities that they find to be rewarding to themselves rather than just being involved in the workforce because of a desire to earn money. Furthermore, in a system that is dominated by AI, humans could end up in a scenario where they are able to earn some money from their governments to help them live comfortably while at the same time seeking to establish a society where they are able to have a higher standard of living through their own efforts. AI has the potential of making sure that human society is greatly improved from what it is today, where the economic worries of individuals make it extremely difficult for individuals to focus more on their personal interests.

In conclusion, the presence of AI is not a threat to humans, and should instead be considered to be an advantage because it is a technology whose potential is limitless. The achievement of the goal of automating work could go a long way towards making it possible for human society to change for the better in such a way that enhances the lives of individuals. AI is also an essential aspect when it comes to bringing about an enhancement of efficiency in the delivery of services, in such a way that promotes the establishment of more responsible government, while at the same time helping in bringing about more effective ways of managing problems associated with collective action such as climate change mitigation. AI is going to become the biggest part of the global economy in future, and its increasing use in various technologies shows that it is widely accepted by people across the world. So far, it has not proven to be a threat, and has instead become one of the best ways of helping facilitate the ease of life among individuals.