The U.S. Military should shift its focus from Terrorism

There has recently developed the argument that the time has come for military of the United States to shift its focus from terrorism to other matters which are designed to promote international peace. It is for this reason that many policy makers have increasingly started shifting their attention from the war on terror to other initiatives that involve less military involvement in combat and more on peacekeeping and diplomatic initiatives. According to McAllister (2007), the United States in recent years has come to develop some very close relationships with its former adversaries such as Russia, with which it has developed increasing cooperation in matters concerning nonproliferation and counterterrorism. The main reason for the increased cooperation between these countries, according to McAllister is mainly because of the increasing threats to international security through the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction by rogue states as well as the development of religious radicalism which further increases international insecurity. As world leaders, both the United States and Russia have come to realize that they have a common interest in the containment of security threats and these have been exemplified through the increasing risk of terrorist attacks against the United States as well as the radicalization that is taking place in the Caucasus region of Russia. It is mainly through military cooperation between these states, as seen through bilateral, unilateral, and multilateral initiatives, which have ensured that there is proper distribution of international power in ensuring security. McAllister concludes that while the American and Russian militaries have in recent years seen some level of cooperation, the fact remains that these two countries still have a long way to go before they can be able to fully cooperate in all matters concerning international security. It is for this reason that cases that deal directly with national security are dealt with informally, on a case-by-case starting point.

The military-led war on terror has led to a situation where a large number of suspected terrorists have been detained at the Guantanamo Bay detention facility and it is for this reason that there has been plenty of agitation for the release of some of them, because they are deemed to be innocent. Foley (2007) states that the supporters of the policy of detaining individuals for long periods of time without trial justify their support by declaring that it provides the president with the capacity to contain terrorists and through vigorous interrogation are able to provide details of planned attacks. According to Foley, this plan has been widely criticized from its beginnings because it is a direct violation of human rights and lacks in any moral grounds making in illegal. This use of the military in the interrogation and detention of suspected terrorists, Foley states, has been a complete failure because it has led to the imprisonment of some innocent people who have only confessed to crimes they did not commit because of the fear of torture. The fact that the military is used in the development of indiscriminate dragnets, incarceration as well as the use of coercive interrogations who have not been proven to be terrorists has led to the discrediting of the American military, which many believed is a tool of American injustice. There has developed the risk of intelligence agencies being provided with false information through the false confessions of individuals who do not know anything about what they are talking about and this has led to the increasing misinformation that has hampered the progress of the war on terror. Because of the abject failure of coercive interrogations, the United States government has come to fail to comprehend the connection between detention, interrogation, and detentions and this has led to the failure to sort those individuals who are terrorists from non-terrorists through the judicial process.

It is a fact that many of the individuals who, through military action, have been detained are not accorded any of the constitutional rights that are commonplace among most Americans. This has led to the increasing disillusionment of the families of the individuals that have been detained that they will receive justice by proving their innocence. According to Jenkins (2006), in the 2004 case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, the Supreme Court ruled that the individuals who had been detained by the government on suspicion of being terrorists only had limited rights and that because of this; they had no ability to challenge their status as enemy combatants. Jenkins further states that it was in response to this case that the Bush government formed the Combatant Status Review Tribunal (CSRT), although this tribunal proved not to be effective because it functioned as the propagator of the government’s case against the detainees. This tribunal has proven to apply a broad definition to all of those individuals who have been categorized as enemy combatants and because the detainees are prohibited from having lawyers, they are not able to argue against the tribunal’s decision to detain them indefinitely. The military commissions which were developed by the Bush government to try detainees on charges of terrorism and war crimes have, according to Jenkins, been rigged against the accused. This is mainly because of the fact that these commissions rely completely on the confessions coerced from the detainees through torture, the use of hearsay, as well as the use of soldiers as jurors. Because military commissions have the power of passing the death sentence to those who are brought before them has created a situation where it is extremely difficult for the individuals who have been falsely accused to get out of the situation alive. This is the reason why some innocent detainees, in their attempt to stay alive end up falsely accusing others and confessing to crimes they did not commit as a way of avoiding the death sentence. In addition, Jenkins states that because of the rigged rules that have been put in place in the trials of detainees, it has become the norm for investigators to remain confident that they will win all the cases that are brought before them. This is mainly because investigators have come to see little need to infiltrate terrorist organizations to gain tangible or credible details for their cases, relying on the mostly false confessions of their detainees. Kim and Allard (2008) state that since its development, there have been many challenges faced by the Department of Homeland Security in its attempt to create a common culture within the intelligence agencies under its jurisdiction. It is the development of a common culture between these disparate agencies that, in addition to the military, is essential for the development of a comprehensive antiterrorism strategy. This has not been the case and has led to the failure of intelligence agencies to develop accurate databases, and this has resulted in the failure of some military operations meant to deal with terrorist threats.

The 9/11 attacks on the United States has led to the development of a new American approach to foreign policy which is intimately tied to the security of the nation. According to Miles (2012), the American foreign policy towards Africa has been based on ensuring its security and this has come to rival development as the main reason behind American involvement in this continent. All development programs and projects that are of American origin have attached to them a security dimension, developed by the department of defense, which works hand in hand with such institutions as USAID. Miles argues that the high potential for acts of terrorism to be committed in the United States has led it to adopt policies towards Africa which serve to undermine its development. This is the reason, he states, why it is important for the United States to adopt counterterrorism measures towards Africa which are fairly mild to ensure that it becomes a strategic as well as developmental defense activity. Miles, in the writing of his article uses records as well as a study of the American policies towards the Maghreb region from the Bush through to the Obama administrations. The result of this study is that since the 9/11 attacks, the American policy towards this region has seriously shifted, ensuring that the previously diverse developmental and security initiatives in the region have become converged into one initiative. The result of this has been that there has developed a wide range of sympathetic public opinion throughout Africa towards the American military involvement in their countries, with many believing that they are the best option for deterring terrorism. This, however, has not been the case in American public, where there is a large number of people who question the validity of the military being actively involved in the developmental and security programs of African nations when they can do more in fighting terrorism.

The American military involvement in the war on terror has had an adverse effect on the internal stability of some countries such as Pakistan, which has since the beginning of this initiative, been a staunch American ally. According to Khan (2010), Pakistan’s military alliance with the United States has led to a situation where it is currently facing an internal crisis. This crisis stems from the fact that the government which recently came to power has had to contend with the commitments made by the previous government to the American cause as well as maintaining a stable relationship with its neighbors that has been soured by the war on terror. Khan further states that it is because of Pakistan’s involvement in the war on terror that its security has come under threat not only from India, its longtime rival, but also Afghanistan. Khan therefore offers the opinion that the only solution for this situation is for the United States to restrain the activities of India along the border close to Pakistan and Afghanistan. Moreover, according to Mohamadian (2012), there has been numerous debates among scholars concerning the unilateral military actions that the United States has taken in the Middle East which have come to affect diplomacy and international relations. While the intentions of some of these interventions might have been sound, the result has been arise in sectarian violence, especially in Iraq, as well as the prevalence of terrorist attacks, and these have come to threaten the American-led initiative to rebuild the Iraqi state. Furthermore, Ahmad (2010) states that there has developed some friction between the United States’ counterterrorism initiative and the one of Pakistan and this have created a situation where there is conflict between their national interests. Pakistan’s reliance on irregular warfare in its region is one of its instruments of national security and this has come to be challenged by the United States government which seeks to bring these activities to an end, therefore not serving Pakistan’s national interests.

The Virgin Mary Painting and Religion in Mexican art

Religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. The fact that a large number of Mexican artists are influenced by religion in their work is mainly based on the fact that a majority of Mexicans are highly religious individuals, and very devoted to the Roman Catholic Church (Taylor, 145). It has been found that a large number of artists in Mexico consider it their duty to create religious images because in the devotional sense, they consider it to be an act of worship. The Virgin Mary also has a very prominent position in the religious art of Mexico and this is mainly because of the fact that she is highly venerated in the country with many Mexicans considering her to be the mother of the entire nation. In addition, many Mexicans during their prayers seek the help of the Virgin Mary as they ask her to intercede to God and Jesus on their behalf and this has ensured that she has come to be revered by all the people in the nation. The prominence of the Virgin Mary in the national psyche has ensured that she is also given a prominent position in art, because Mexican artists, like all Mexican people, are very devoted to her. This has led to a situation where most of the art in the country has some religious aspect in one way or the other and this has ensured that the religious spirit of Mexican artwork has remained prevalent with little sign of its diminishing in the coming years. Religion has been a source of inspiration for Mexican art for many years and it is for this reason that a large number of art that it produced in this country, even that in the secular realm, has some aspect of religion within it.

As has been mentioned above, Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. However, it has been found that the Catholicism that is practiced in this country is highly syncretic, and this is mainly because of the fact that a large number of the indigenous people readily accepted it after the Spanish conquest (Carruthers, 358). While this may have been the case, most of them accepted the new religion by making an association between it and their own traditional religions so that the Virgin of Guadalupe came to be associated with their goddess Tonantzin, and it is in the latter manner that she has been depicted in Mexican art to this day. It is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. The Catholic Church has always been a champion for the rights of all the common people in Mexico as they have fought against tyrannical or elitist rule since their independence (Purnell, 222). These actions on behalf of the people have given it massive influence over their lives and this has been based on the respect that many Mexicans feel towards it. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists include aspects of their Catholic beliefs in their artwork and many of them feel that in doing so, they are fulfilling their religious and devotional duty towards the individuals that they depict in their work. In the latter case, most of the images which are depicted in Mexican art involve the Virgin Mary, shown in her incarnation as the Virgin of Guadalupe, and the most respected religious figure in the country.

Most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. It is therefore common for Mexican artists to include some form of religious symbol in their art, the most common being the image of the crucified Jesus or the image of the Virgin Mary in one of her incarnations, especially as the Virgin of Guadalupe (Pardo, 312). This influence of religion in Mexican art is normally further enforced through the involvement of priests in the daily lives of most Mexicans. This involvement tends to be marked by various important events such as during births, weddings, and death; all of these events being normally officiated by priests. In addition, it has been found that priests also get involved in other activities in the lives of many Mexicans such as when the latter need to have their property, such as newly acquired homes, vehicles and businesses, blessed by a priest. Thus, priests are not only involved in the daily religious lives of many Mexicans, but parish priests tend to be also involved in their social lives as well and this is normally because the priests more often than not know a majority of the members of the communities whom they serve. The priests, being representatives of the church, usually end up emphasizing, albeit unconsciously, the role of the Church in the daily lives of many Mexicans and all of this, one would suggest, has a profound influence on the work of artists. In this manner, the influence of religious practitioners in Mexico cannot be underestimated when one considers the fact that most of the art of this country is very religious in character and this attests to the highly devotional nature of the artists to their religious beliefs as well.

Religious rituals and holy places have been found to play a significant role in the art of Mexico and this is because of the fact that these are very important aspects of life in this country. In most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar (Conover, 441). These events, from the Last Supper, Transfiguration, and Crucifixion are among the most revered aspects of Mexican religious belief and because artists want to connect with their audience, they normally include these events in their art. The ability of religion to influence the artists of Mexico can also be attributed to the numerous religious observances that Mexicans often participate in throughout the year in veneration of the large number of Catholic saints according to the religious calendar. These events often attract a large number of people and pilgrims not only from Mexico but also from the rest of the world who come to visit the holy places in this country. It is mainly because of the high religious observance by people from Mexico that artists add aspects of religion in their work and they do this to ensure that they not only connect with their audience, but that they are able to sell their art, because it is through the latter that they make a living. Thus, artists often tap into the emotional attachment that many Mexicans have to religion in order to develop the form of art which is full of religious aspects which are often sold faster than those with secular aspects. For a nation which is highly devoted to Catholic beliefs, it is normal for many individuals, especially those who go on pilgrimage to religious shrines, to want to take religious art back to their homes (Bailey, 191). This is where artists have an advantage because they are able to develop art forms which appeal to the majority of the pilgrims and in this manner; they are able to make a more comfortable living from their work than those who concentrate on nonreligious art. Furthermore, it is a fact that all communities in Mexico, both urban and rural, tend to have their own patron saints and artists have taken advantage of this aspect of Mexican life to make art which is representative of all of these communities.

Because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. This obsession with death and the afterlife can be attributed to the massive integration of indigenous religious beliefs into the Mexican Catholic culture and this has ensured that many of the artists within this culture are very interested in the subject (Nesvig, 225). For most Mexicans, the need to live a good life so that when they die and reach judgment, they can be promoted to paradise is very essential for them and this leads them to devote at least some of their time to religious observances. Their entreaties to the Virgin of Guadalupe to intercede to God on their behalf have created a situation where artists work very hard to ensure that they present this situation as it is. Death in Mexican culture is not something to be feared but is accepted as a basic part of life and is at times celebrated and it is mainly because of this perception that it has become part of their basic religious beliefs. It is for this reason that many Mexican artists, in their depictions of death, instead of making it gloomy and a sad event, depict it a celebration, as it is believed that those individuals who are dying have moved on to be with their creator (De León, 493). This is in contrast with other cultures, especially those to the north of Mexico, where artists often depict death as something scary which many human beings fear and try to escape it at all costs. Mexican art, on the other hand, is quite open concerning the various aspects of death and this is because of their staunch religious beliefs concerning the matter, since there is the constant belief that there is an afterlife and that the best means to deal with it is not to fear it, but to celebrate it. The best examples of Mexican art concerning death are those inspired by the Days of the Dead, which act as days when the dead within the society are not only remembered but also celebrated.

Artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them. One will find that even in their depictions of the most regular things in life, such as love, hate, nature, and other forms of art subjects, most of these artists often make religious depictions or they create images which more or less have religious connotations (Wolford, 1049). This not only enables them to show their artistic prowess, but it also allows them to ensure that they do so in a manner which is both attractive and devotional. Catholic beliefs are predominant within Mexico and it is very difficult to go anywhere within the settled part of the country where there are no religious depictions in one form or the other (Schroeder, 56). These often serve as inspirations for many artists who base their works on them while at the same time working towards depicting the everyday lives of Mexicans. Because of the highly religious nature of some of the Mexican artworks, there is a lot of demand for it from the extremely devoted members of the local society, many of whom put these artworks in their homes or places of work in the belief that they bring them closer to God. The art of Mexico which has religious aspects has come to also have a high demand internationally, especially from those individuals and states which are devoutly Catholic and this has ensured that there are massive purchases of the same. This demand has also encouraged more artists to concentrate on the creation of works which are religious in nature as this has more demand than secular art. However, in recent years, with the younger generation of Mexicans not being as devout as their parents and previous generations, there has developed a high demand for secular artwork. There has developed a trend where the influence of religion on Mexican art has begun to wane as the population becomes more secularized as a result of the various aspects of globalization. While this has been the case, one will also find that the influence of religion is still strong and while its influence may be waning, it will likely remain a strong part of Mexican art in the coming generations.

In conclusion, it has been found that religion has over the centuries come to have a significant effect on the development of Mexican art and this trend has continued to be the case to the present. It has also been found that Roman Catholicism is the most dominant religion within Mexico and this has been the case since the founding of the state after the Spanish conquest. In addition, it is a fact that Catholic beliefs have an influence on the daily lives of many Mexicans and this is because the Church has been a powerful institution within this nation since its founding, at times being in good terms with the state and in others being openly hostile. Moreover, it is important to note that most of Mexican art tends to depict the daily lives of the people within this nation and this cannot be done without some form of religious attribute because of the fact that most Mexicans are highly devout individuals. Furthermore, in most art, it is normal for artists to make depictions of the events leading up to Easter, which is the most important event in the Mexican calendar. Finally, because of the religious nature of many Mexicans, it has become common for the artists to make depictions of death and the afterlife in their art. Thus, one would say that the artists in Mexico come from very religious backgrounds and their works shows how much it has a massive influence on them.

African Americans and Japanese Americans During WWII and its Aftermath

African Americans and Japanese Americans had a long history of discrimination in the country and this became worse during and after the Second World War when many of them came to be segregated along racial lines. The history of discrimination against these two communities tended to be extreme because they were treated as lesser human beings who had no rights. Therefore, despite having been in America for several generations already, these groups came to face many challenges especially during the war and post-war period.

When the African Americans who had been to the war returned home, they came with new ideas acquired from their experiences in the warzone in Europe. While they were in Europe, they had been treated on an equal basis by the white people of that continent and this made them realise their rights as human beings. Those from the south had a new mindset which would eventually lead them to ensuring that their rights as human beings were respected and that the Jim Crow South did not remain as it had been previously.

The fact that African Americans came to realise their rights and demanded them did not go down well within the white dominated society. This period came to see heavy attacks on the African Americans by the white establishment, especially in the south where many were attacked in broad daylight in full view of the police who did nothing to protect these people (Hobson, 356). It was the escalation of these attacks as well as the discrimination in other sectors of the social and economic life of the United States that there developed the Civil Rights Movement whose main purpose was to fight for the rights of the African Americans.

After the Pearl Harbour attacks in the United States, where the Imperial Japanese navy attacked the United States on its own soil, it was the Japanese Americans who came to face the brunt of the public anger that developed. The Japanese Americans were innocent of any involvement in these attacks yet they were increasingly viewed with suspicion by the mainstream American society. This situation became worse once the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, since the Japanese Americans were made to leave their homes and moved into detention camps because of the suspicion that there were Japanese spies among them (Staub 1238).

The fact that they were detained by their own government despite having lived in the United States for generations and having broken all ties with Japan was a sign that they had not been fully accepted into American society. Those who were detained in these camps, when eventually set free, were much traumatised because they failed to see the reason why they had been detained in the first place. Just because they looked different form the rest of the American people and that their ancestors originally came from a country which had attacked the United States was not a valid reason for their discrimination and this they came to realise as a violation of their fundamental rights as Americans.