The Shaping of Gender Roles

Gender roles have existed for almost as long as the human race has existed and it is quite possible that they will continue to exist in the foreseeable future. They are a part of our daily lives and is manifested within the society by observable factors such as how one behaves or appears. They are patterns of feelings deemed appropriate or inappropriate because of one’s gender and they derive from the social expectations of how members of the different genders should behave. For example, if a person considers themselves to be female, then she would be expected to display the characteristics which are typically associated with being female, such as being gentle, dependent and expressive of their feelings. There are various factors that are used to determine the gender roles in society and the most important of these are biological, social, and cultural factors.

The biological make up of an individual in society has long been used to determine how that person should behave. However, there is yet to be proof of the fact that whether one is male or female, he or she is born with the innate knowledge of the characteristics that are often ascribed to their gender. In fact, those who support the idea that biology determines gender roles cannot explain how or why some males become very emotional and cry in situations where they are expected to be strong and unemotional. This helps to show that biology does is not necessarily a determining factor in gender roles.

The society plays a major role in determining the gender roles of the individuals within it. These individuals learn about their roles in society through their interactions with their family members, their socializing with their teachers and friends at school, and through the influence of mass media. The parents of a large number of people in society determine the gender roles of their children and rigidly enforce them. Therefore, these individuals grow up knowing the roles which are expected of their gender and are not allowed to choose for themselves because of the set societal norms.

Culture is another major factor that determines the gender roles of individuals in the societies within which they live. There are many different cultures around the world and each has its own expectations about what roles the members of each sex should undertake. While in most Western societies the male is expected to be dominant in society, in other cultures such as in some Asian communities, women are very powerful players within the society and major decisions cannot be made without consulting them.

The various roles that are ascribed to the various genders are mostly determined by the society within which one lives and by its culture. Biology only acts as a marker to determine how the society is going to socialize an individual to behave and it is not in itself a definer of gender roles. Within the modern world, gender roles are starting to become insignificant because it has been proven that women can take up the roles traditionally reserved for men with the same efficiency and the reverse has also been proven to be true. The gender roles are today slowly becoming blurred and they may cease to exist altogether in future.

The Need for the Legalization of Marijuana

The validation of the substance known as marijuana is one of the most divisive issues in the public stage today. Marijuana has, for a long time, been banned in many countries but those who advocate for it have recently gained ground. Some countries are decriminalizing the possession of this drug, with the aim of gaining control its movement. Opponents of this action state that marijuana is s harmful drug which comes to adversely affect the health of those who use it.

It is a fact that the public support for the legalization of marijuana has more than doubled since the 1970s, and this has created a strong case. The rise in public support can be attributed to the belief that the substance has become too common for it to be controlled. It has been found that a sizable number of Americans, some 38%, have at one time or another in their lives tried the drug and this may have contributed to its acceptance by many Americans. This shows that the American public, in general, is ready to accept the legalization of marijuana because it has become a basic part of their way of life.

The legalization of marijuana is an extremely desirable thing because of the fact that its consumption has not been found to have the lasting effects. While other drugs such as cocaine have adverse effect on the individuals who use them, marijuana’s effects are relatively mild. The legalization of this substance would ensure that the stigma associated with the use (medicinal or otherwise) and distribution of marijuana is done away with. In addition, the public acceptance of marijuana and its legalization will ensure that there is freedom of use for the substance, hence guaranteeing a basic human right of all adult Americans.

A benefit for the legalisation of marijuana would be the enabling of the elimination of the criminal market for the same substances. It is a fact that the production and use of some of marijuana creates an environment where organised crime becomes the norm as they fight to control the market for marijuana. The legalization of this substance would ensure that organised crime is forced out of its trade because they would be starved of their constant income. In addition, the legalization would enable the government to regulate and control the market for marijuana, ensuring that there are laws against selling the substance to minors.

In conclusion, as has been seen above, the fact remains that the legalization of marijuana is more beneficial than detrimental for the American society. The American society has become more accepting of the substance and the public support for its legalization may lead to its eventual acceptance. Marijuana is not the harmful drug to the extent that it has always been thought because quite a significant number of the American population has used it. The acceptance of the substance will also ensure the decriminalization of the trade in it since the cartels involved will no longer have the influence to control it. Therefore, the legalization of marijuana is a desirable development in the United States, since it will enable the sustaining of the right of Americans to make their own choices.

The Role of Art in Making Political Statements

Art has, for a lengthy time, been used to make political statements among the Rapanui. The art of the Rapanui, in particular the statues of Moai, are the last part of the ancient history of these people and because of this, they still have a special impact on then Rapanui. When the Spanish colonized the Easter Islands, they discovered the importance of these statues to the Rapanui and in order to make a political statement, these giant statues were toppled from their pedestals, to show that the Spanish were dominant on the islands. While this may have been the case, these statues have come to be recognized as a unique part of the Rapanui heritage and attempts have been made by the Chilean government, which governs the islands, to restore them. The Rapanui have made these statues their rallying point when agitating for political independence from Chile, which they consider to be an oppressive colonizer.

A similar political statement was made in the past by the English in a bid to establish their dominance over the Scottish people. The English, after defeating the Scots in battle, took the important Stone of Scone, which was an essential part of the Scottish coronation ritual, from Scotland to England. This was used as a symbol of English dominance of the Scots, but in this instance it does not seem to have worked since Scotland came to regain its independence later. In essence, art and objects of power have been used throughout history either as rallying points for political causes, or as means to dominate people who hold them in high regard.

Factors that Determine Regime Stability

Introduction

Political stability is a concept that is often discussed as an extremely valued condition because it brings about a situation where there is good political development. Instability, on the other hand, is considered to come about because of a lack of political development on the part of the state involved. This project presents a case study of the determinants of regime stability with specific reference to the Middle Eastern countries of Egypt and Iran, on one hand, and Mexico on the other.

Hypothesis

Most definitions of regime stability tend to be based on the prominence of regularity which has a positive effect on the system of government involved, and fail to consider that stability depends on the unique circumstances facing each regime.

Definition of key concepts

Regime – a government, especially one that is considered authoritarian.

Stability – the state of being stable, in this case political or concerning government.

The justification for dependent variable: positive representations of regime stability

A considerable number of studies present regime stability as the having a positive effect on the system of government involved. It is a means through which governments are assessed by internal actors and brings about a situation where there is the advancement of policies towards such regimes by external actors.

The justification for independent variable

Regime stability is dependent on the prevailing political conditions at home. Some regimes might seem to be highly stable yet prove to be quite vulnerable in the long run. Moreover, those that are seen as being highly volatile end up proving more durable.

Other significant variables

Lack of democratic space: despite the relative stability of a regime, there are instances where the population might end up revolting because they do not participate in politics.

Slow move towards change: the world is rapidly changing and this process has also come into politics. Lack of political reforms could lead to regime instability.

Influence from external actors: there might develop a situation where external actors seek to influence internal events, leading to considerable instability.

Review of Studies on the Topic

The belief in political stability is one that has for the most part promoted the policies of most countries towards others. This is because stability tends to be given more prominence than any other aspect of politics because it enables the achievement of goals that would otherwise be extremely difficult to bring about. Therefore, there is a constant need by countries, especially those that are international players, to ensure that they bring about the maintenance of regime stability in order to serve their own interests (Game III, 2011). Under such circumstances, predicting abrupt political change is often an extremely difficult task because it is often influenced by the way that political analysts conceptualize regime stability. Countries such as the United States and those that make up the EU have pursued varying policies in the Middle East with the aim of promoting a situation where their interests are based on the stability of the non-democratic regimes in the region. A consequence has been that whenever political changes have taken place, they have happened in such a way that has caught them by surprise. Therefore, there is a need to ensure that there is the advancement of greater efforts aimed at bringing about a greater understanding of the stability of regimes in the Middle East and other parts of the world in order to help in the development of more effective policies. There seems to have been a failure in the foreign policies of both the United States and the EU when it comes to understanding the determinants of regime stability in the Middle East and this has been an extremely costly mistake as seen with the events of the Arab Spring and their aftermath.

Apart from the Middle East, another area of concern for the United States for decades has been Latin America (Holden & Zolov, 2000). The political instability in Latin America has been represented through the Roosevelt Corollary and the revolutionary movements that pervaded the Central American nations for decades (Ricard, 2006). A sense of urgency to ensure an understanding of the factors that lead to the development of stable political systems, especially when considering the extralegal means through which power has been seized in the history of some South American countries, has been a hallmark of American policy in the region (Hart, 1977). Despite these events, a study of the political development of Mexico can be considered an essential one when it comes to regime stability. This is because despite revolutions taking place in the country, unlike other Latin American countries, Mexico has been able to ensure that it enjoys a relatively stable political environment for more than half a century (De Janvry, Gonzalez-Navarro, & Sadoulet, 2014). Despite considerable pressure having been placed on its political system due to rapid economic growth as well as other challenges, Mexico has been able to ensure that it continues to remain stable. Under such circumstances, Mexico can be considered a country that has remained fairly stable despite facing similar challenges to its Latin American counterparts, which have not fared as well.

Presentation and Justification of Cases

Claude Ake promotes the idea that political stability is essentially the regularity in which there is the flow of political exchanges within a society (Ake, 1975, p. 273). This is especially the case considering that political stability can only come about because of the decision of members of a society to put restrictions on themselves in such a way that they conform to the limits that have been imposed on them through the expectations brought about by political roles. Moreover, there is need to ensure that there is no confusion between political stability and the lack of political change. Ernest Duff and John Mccamant define a stable political system as one that can essentially withstand change, but also within the political structure that has been developed in society (Duff & McCamant, 1968, p. 1125). Leon Hurwitz identifies five approaches to the study of political stability and concludes that the most effective is to study political stability as a multifaceted social attribute. This view sees political stability as systemic stability and is a synthesis or integration of the other approaches (Hurwitz, 1973, p. 449).

Stability is considered to be desirable for a vast number of reasons and these are based on the need to ensure that there is the provision of an advantage to external players when it comes to the predictability of government actions. The predictability of government actions can be considered to be essential in helping in the development of policy because it determines the direction that a government or regime is likely to take at certain times (Rodrik & Zeckhauser, 1988). Under such circumstances, it becomes possible to make sure that there is the advancement of a situation where external players are able to adjust their policies accordingly in order to bring about the achievement of the most advantage to themselves in their dealings with the regime. This is especially considering that dealing with a failing state can be an extremely daunting initiative, because it is often difficult to identify a counterpart that can be interacted with effectively in order to ensure that there is the establishment of strong policy initiatives. It is normal for countries to make use of a diversity of initiatives aimed at ensuring that their counterparts are able to accept their point of view and become influenced towards achieving desirable outcomes. However, in the case of an unstable regime, it becomes troublesome because the latter does not have full control over the state (Aisen & Veiga, 2013). Therefore, it becomes necessary for government to ensure that there are efforts to get as accurate an understanding of regimes and the possible risks surrounding them before undertaking to bring about a threat to their stability. The ramifications of an unstable regime can be catastrophic not only to the said state, but also to the region within which it is situated. There is need to promote the creation of a scenario where there are limited foreign interventions that might end up risking the stability of states, because regimes, especially authoritarian ones, can end up proving to be highly unstable whenever challenges by massive popular discontent.

The concept of regime stability is one that has a diversity of definitions and this creates a situation where they end up becoming quite controversial (Hurwitz, 1973). A broad definition of this concept is that it involves a situation where there is the absence of any sort of domestic civil conflict or widespread violence that might end up marring the functions of the state. Instead, the regime can be considered to be one that has essentially rid itself of instability in such a way that there are no systematic attacks on persons and their assets within the boundaries of the state. Furthermore, there is the advancement of a situation where there is need for the regime to ensure that there is the creation of an environment where it is in full control of the situation and it can enforce its will on its people. However, this definition might prove to be problematic, because there are instances where despite the political situation of a country looking stable at the moment, the entire system of governance can end up collapsing quite quickly. This means that despite there being no systematic attacks on individuals or property, the regime could actually be quite fragile; only awaiting an incident to trigger unrest and show its fragility for what it really is. An example of this situation is President Jimmy Carter in 1977 praising pre-revolutionary Iran as being one of the most stable countries in a region that was extremely troubled (Carter, 1977). At the time he made this statement, little did he know that the entire regime would end up unraveling within two years and that there would be a revolution in Iran that would overthrow the Shah. Thus, regime stability cannot be effectively defined based on the above definition because the signs of stability tend to end up actually being only a veneer that hides the decay that is actually being experienced within the political system.

Another interpretation of regime stability is one that essentially equates regime longevity with stability (Harymawan & Nowland, 2016). This is an extremely challenging definition because it involves the definition of a country that experiences constant changes in government as unstable. There is a failure to consider that there are some countries in the world that have experienced constant changes in government yet have for the most part maintained the same policies as their predecessors. Such states might even have very stable administrative systems that are not adversely affected whenever there is regime change. A country such as Italy, which had over sixty changes in government over a similar number of years, was able to maintain a fairly stable policy throughout this period without undergoing any form of instability that would have made the nation extremely vulnerable (Curini, 2011). Under such circumstances, this definition becomes redundant because there is a lack of consideration for those states that remain stable even when there is regime change. Another example is that of Belgium, which had to undergo over a year without a cabinet and would have ended up being ranked even lower that Egypt when it came to regime instability (Hooghe, 2012). However, these circumstances proved wrong because Belgium was able to ride out the storm through the ability of its institutions to not only weather the political storm, but also keep administrative activities going throughout the period. This can be compared to the uninterrupted thirty year old rule of the Mubarak regime in Egypt, which despite its longevity ended up falling within days of public protests in the country (Shehata, 2011).

Moreover, another approach to regime stability is based on the concept of lack of structural change (Maoz & Russett, 1993). This is an approach that seeks to promote the idea that a stable regime is one that essentially has the absence of internally or externally induced change in its basic configuration; resulting in a situation where it remains stable at all times. While this approach can be considered pertinent when it comes to the discussion of regime stability, it is also quite problematic because it promotes the idea of structural change, which is often quite difficult to define. Furthermore, there are instances where deep changes take place in regimes that despite the changes end up remaining quite strong to such an extent that there is a level of continuity in their economic, social, and constitutional formations (Eckstein, 1988). Therefore, the stability of regimes can be considered to be based on the unique situation of each state because there are instances where change can happen in a positive manner to such an extent that it leads to the advancement of stability rather than a failure of the regime. Furthermore, there are instances where it becomes possible for the progression of strong regimes through the development of locally induced changes that gradually bring about positive shifts in the power structure that enhance rather than break regime stability.

Speculative Conclusion

The review of literature above has shown that there is a diversity of definitions of the determinants of regime stability. This is because each regime has to be considered based on its own unique situation rather than being generalized. A study of the regimes has shown that those that seem to be the most stable could turn out to be extremely vulnerable and vice versa. It is therefore essential to make sure that the stability of each regime is studied based on its own unique development and the manner through which it has been able to develop towards the promotion of its institutions and their durability.

References

Aisen, A., & Veiga, F. J. (2013). How does political instability affect economic growth? European Journal of Political Economy, 29, 151-167.

Ake, C. (1975). A definition of political stability. Comparative politics, 7(2), 271-283.

Carter, J. (1977). Tehran, Iran Toasts of the President and the Shah at a State Dinner. The American Presidency Project, 31.

Curini, L. (2011). Government survival the Italian way: The core and the advantages of policy immobilism during the First Republic. European Journal of Political Research, 50(1), 110-142.

De Janvry, A., Gonzalez-Navarro, M., & Sadoulet, E. (2014). Are land reforms granting complete property rights politically risky? Electoral outcomes of Mexico's certification program. Journal of Development Economics, 110, 216-225.

Duff, E. A., & McCamant, J. F. (1968). Measuring social and political requirements for system stability in Latin America. American Political Science Review, 62(4), 1125-1143.

Eckstein, H. (1988). A culturalist theory of political change. American Political Science Review, 82(3), 789-804.

Game III, F. G. (2011). Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring. Foreign Affairs, 90(4), 81-90.

Hart, J. A. (1977). Cognitive maps of three Latin American policy makers. World Politics, 30(1), 115-140.

Harymawan, I., & Nowland, J. (2016). Political connections and earnings quality: How do connected firms respond to changes in political stability and government effectiveness? International Journal of Accounting & Information Management, 24(4), 339-356.

Holden, R. H., & Zolov, E. (2000). Latin America and the United States. A Documentary.

Hooghe, M. (2012). The political crisis in Belgium (2007–2011): a federal system without federal loyalty. Representation, 48(1), 131-138.

Hurwitz, L. (1973). Contemporary approaches to political stability. Comparative politics, 5(3), 449-463.

Maoz, Z., & Russett, B. (1993). Normative and structural causes of democratic peace, 1946–1986. American Political Science Review, 87(3), 624-638.

Ricard, S. (2006). The Roosevelt Corollary. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36(1), 17-26.

Rodrik, D., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988). The dilemma of government responsiveness. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 7(4), 601-620.

Shehata, D. (2011). The fall of the Pharaoh: how Hosni Mubarak's reign came to an end. Foreign Affairs, 26-32.

Facts about the Theory of Demand

Demand is the economic theory that explains a consumer’s desire and readiness to pay a price for a precise good or service. Normally, the price of commodities and services increase as their demand dwindles while the price decreases when there is a high demand for them. According to Taylor and Weerapana (53), the term demand is a relationship between two economic variables namely: the price of a particular good; and the quantity of that good that consumers are willing to buy at the price during a specific time period. It describes how much of a good consumers will purchase at each price and it can be represented by a numerical table or by a graph. As the price of goods and services rise, the quantity demand by consumers goes down. Siddiqui (35) further describes demand as that effective desire which can be satisfied meaning that desires are simply imaginations. It is required that the demand commodity should be available at a certain place, time, and price. Demand must satisfy the following requirements; desire for the specific commodity; sufficient resources to purchase the desired commodity; willingness to spend the resources; and the availability of the commodity.

Demand can also be used to measure or predict the quantity of commodities and services which the buyers would be motivated to buy in a market at a given time and at a given place. The changes in the price of the commodities that are related to that which a consumer uses affects the market demand for it and an example of this would be the price of margarine (which the consumer does not normally use) is much lower than the price of butter (which the consumer normally uses). Inevitably, the consumer will decide to go for the cheaper product although their preference lies with the more expensive one. The demand for certain commodities may also be affected by the changes of the income of potential buyers, for example, if the income of a buyer is reduced, then he will opt to purchase cheaper commodities in line with his diminished income; but if the income is increased, then the buyer’s demand for the same product at higher prices will increase significantly. The future expectations of buyers almost always have a tendency of influencing the market demand of a product and this is usually displayed by considering the income security of potential buyers. If a potential buyer is confident in his belief that his future income will be stable, the he is more likely to spend more in buying both the commodities that he needs and wants. If however his future income is very insecure, then he is most likely to keep most of his money in savings in anticipation of a bleak financial future than spending it on commodities.

The demand schedule is a table that shows the quantity of demand of a good at the various price levels and it is a very important feature within the market because it helps to predict the future trends in the demand of commodities. In this way, given the price level, it is easy to determine the expected quantity demanded. A demand schedule is normally used alongside a supply schedule and these show the amount of certain goods that can be supplied to a market or markets at given price levels at various times and it is used to indicate that there is an inverse relationship between the price and the quantity demanded. Lipsey and Chrystal (40) state that a demand schedule is one way of showing the relationship between quantity demand and price. It is a numerical table that is used to show the quantity of goods that will be demanded at some selected prices.

Hoag and Hoag (59) state that the law of demand shows an inverse relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded of that good. When the value of a commodity goes in a certain direction, the amount of the equal commodity that is in demand goes in the opposite direction. As the price rises, less is purchased and this is indicated by the quantity demanded decreasing. There is a clear evidence of the law of demand at work in our daily lives. For example, when postage rates increase, then fewer Christmas cards are sent because the quantity demanded has fallen as the price has risen. When retail stores advertise sales, then these sales serve to increase the quantity demanded by lowering the price. The buyer response to higher fuel and energy prices will lead to smaller and more energy efficient cars, and in the homes, cooler temperatures and sweaters because there is a lower quantity demanded of energy at the higher price.

One reason why a consumer buys more of a good as the price falls is that the good becomes an attractive substitute for other goods and this encourages the consumer buys more of the good and consequently less of the other goods related to it. As the price of a good goes down, the consumer is able to purchase more of this good than he could before the price fell. Therefore, the consumer appears to have more income but this is not the case because it should be noted that the amount of money that the consumer actually has remains unchanged yet the purchasing power of the money increases as the price falls. The law of demand tells us that people have a tendency to respond to the price changes of given commodities and learning this would be helpful for a trader in fixing the prices of his commodities because he knows how much the demand for that particular commodity will fall if the price is raised beyond a certain level. The law of demand also helps the government in the setting of taxes on various commodities by analyzing the effects of taxes on the demand of these commodities in the market and adjusting the tax rates so that they may be more to the government’s advantage. It is also a very important factor in the planning of when and where to sell commodities due to their demand.

There are however some exceptions to the law of demand and an example of this is the inability of this law to explain why when the price of some goods increases, their demand also increase, and when their prices fall, then their demand decreases with this fall. A good example of such goods are precious stones and metals whose demand will continue to be high when their prices are high and the demand for them falls when their prices fall. A lot of people out of ignorance consider goods of cheaper prices to be of low quality and they buy it less, but when the prices of such commodities become high, then there is a tendency among these buyers to buy more of this commodity.

The law of demand further does not work when in anticipation for the rise of the price of goods; consumers begin to buy more of these goods even after there is an increase in the price of these goods in the present time. Similarly, if the prices are expected to fall in the foreseeable future, the consumers will buy less of these goods even if the costs of these commodities have become even lower in the present. Moreover, the law of demand does not work during the times of war or emergencies because if there are fears of a food shortage, then consumers will buy more food commodities for the purpose of hoarding and building stock. On the other hand, under certain situations, during an economic depression when prices are continuously falling, people tend to postpone their demand and thus buy less at lower prices.

In order to define marginal utility, we shall first define what utility is. Utility is the way defined by market participants of measuring gratification or contentment and how these relate to the decisions that people make while purchasing goods and it measures the advantages or disadvantages of consuming certain goods or services. Lipsey and Harbury (39) state that marginal utility is defined as the difference in utility arising from a change in the rate of consumption per period of time. Marginal utility is the added fulfillment that consumers gain from consuming additional units of commodities or services. It is an essential economic concept because the economists make use of it to determine how much of an item potential consumers will buy. The marginal utility is positive when the consumption of a bonus item increases the total utility while marginal utility is considered to be negative when the consumption of the bonus item decreases the total utility.

Mishra (20) defines the demand curve as the graphic illustration of a demand schedule depicting the relationship between the price of certain commodities and the amount of these commodities that buyers are able and willing to but at a given price. Demand curves are used to approximate the conducts in the market and these are often combined with supply curves to approximate the price at which sellers are willing to put up for sale the equivalent quantity of goods as buyers are willing to buy. The demand curve represents the highest quantities for every unit of time that consumers will take at various prices. The demand curve is used to show the relationships between the diverse quantities demanded at diverse prices.

There are various factors which affect the demand of commodities in the market and this is elaborated by Siddiqui (43) who states that an increase in the number of buyers will increase the demand for the good, for example, the demand for land increases as the population increases. An increase in the price of a commodity expected in future increases the demand in the present while a decrease in the same decreases the current demand. For example, when a good is temporarily put on sale, the people stock up on the good with the expectation that the good will no longer be in the market in the near future. Demand can shift due to the changes in taste over time, for example, the demand for breakfast cereal may possibly be very high in the morning but its demand may turn out to be very low at night. Furthermore, changes in quality also affect demand, for example, CDs cost more than cassettes because the music in CDs is of a higher quality than that in cassettes.

Siddiqui (52) states that elasticity of demand is a measure of the relative change in the amount purchased in response to any change in price or a given demand curve. Price elasticity deals with how sensitive the demand for a certain commodity is to a change in the products own price and in relation to this, there are several factors which determine the elasticity of a product or service and some of these include the following: the more the number of close substitutes for a good in the market, the more elastic is the demand for a product because consumers can more easily switch their demand if the price of one product changes relative to others in the market. Furthermore, there may be significant transaction costs involved in switching between different goods and services and in this case, demand tends to be inelastic, for example, cell phone service providers may decide to include fine sections in contracts or may insist on twelve month contracts being taken out. Goods and services that are considered by consumers to be necessities tend to have a more elastic demand because the said consumers can still survive without luxuries when their financial plans are stretched to their limits. Demand has a tendency to be more price elastic the longer consumers are allowed to respond to a price change by varying their purchasing decisions because it takes time for consumers to notice and to respond to price fluctuations.

References

Hoag, Arleen J & Hoag, John H. Introductory Economic. Singapore: World Scientific, 2006.

Lipsey, Richard G. Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Mishra, Sasmita. Engineering Economics and Costing. New Delhi, India: PHI Learning, 2009.

Siddiqui, S.A. Managerial Economics and Financial Analysis. New Delhi, India: New Age International, 2006.

Taylor, John B. & Weerapana, Akila. Economics. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning, 2007.

Face-to-face vs. Distance Learning

There are many advantages of the face-to-face learning system and some of these are dependent on the accessibility if the course instructors as well as the consistency if classes. Face-to-face leaning not only has the advantage of enabling students to develop a culture of teamwork, but it also enables them to actively participate in the lecture. Professors are able to directly influence their students by teaching them the ideas which are propagated by their various schools of thought. It is for these reasons that the following statement comes true:

Students who prefer the traditional format (face-to-face) do so for several reasons, but they most commonly cite a preference for the instructor presence and the learning advantage of face-to-face interactions.

(Daymont, 2011: 156)

There are various disadvantages of face-to-face learning despite the fact that it is still the most popular mode of learning. Some of these disadvantages stem from the need for there to be an instructor present in order for lectures to take place and this added to the cost of transport imposed on the students may limit their access to education. Although it is emphasized by many that face-to-face learning is preferable, it is still quite limited:

For example, the learning outcomes of students in a traditional face-to-face system may be considered to be better than those of students learning in a distance learning system but the latter has the advantage of permitting greater access to education.

(Henry, 1998:117)

The distance learning system has an advantage over the face-to-face system because it enables many people to have access to education at their own convenience. This system is currently used by adults who, because of their busy schedules, cannot attend lectures frequently and their best and fastest option is to do so online. It is to the advantage of these students for them to have distance learning that is easier for them to cope with:

Factors that predispose undergraduates towards taking online classes were examined and it was found that the risk factors for non-completion of their degree prefer distance education courses since distance educations courses provide students with more convenient and flexible class schedules.

(Moore and Kearsley, 2011:150)

The distance learning system also has some disadvantages which face-to-face learning does not. Distance learning does not require the presence of a professor or instructor and this leads to less interaction between them. Furthermore, it is very difficult for a student to gain a full understanding of what the instructor is saying because responses to queries take a very long time to get. A further disadvantage is that it is very hard for the students being taught a course through distance channels to develop the necessary skills that are needed for teamwork, an advantage that face-to-face learning has over distance learning. Research has shown that many students still prefer face-to-face learning to distance learning because they feel that it is a better way of getting instruction from their professors. A study undertaken on various distance learning students showed:

Surprisingly, more students would like to have more turns when interacting with the instructor and this seems to contradict their earlier assertion that they did not want to focus more on listening and speaking.

(Zi-Gang, 2012: 291)

Cited Works

Daymont, T. and Blau, G., 2011. Deciding Between Traditional and Online Formats: Exploring the Role of Learning Advantages, Flexibility, and Compensatory Adaptation. Journal Of Behavioral & Applied Management, 12 (2), pp.156-175, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 15 August 2012.

Henry, M., 1998. Using IT Effectively: A Guide To Technology In The Social Sciences. Oxon, United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis.

Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G., 2011. Distance Education: A Systems View of Online Learning. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning.

Zi-Gang, G., 2012. Cyber Asynchronous versus Blended Cyber Approach in Distance English Learning. Journal Of Educational Technology & Society, 15(2), pp.286-297.

The Electoral Art of War by Charles M. Blow

In an attempt to put a stop to the so far successful Obama campaign, Mitt Romney decided to choose Paul Ryan, a prominent member of the Tea Party, as his running mate. This choice destroyed any chances Romney had of salvaging his campaign by focusing on the economy and instead, due to Ryan’s likely influence, it will probably focus more on attacking Obama’s policies than on tackling any real issues concerning the economy which is currently the most pertinent issue. By attacking Romney’s strength, which were issues concerning the economy, the Obama campaign pushed Romney into making a disastrous choice for a running mate, turning the scales in favor of Obama. Romney chose his running mate to try and counter Obama’s attacks on him by attacking Obama’s greatest strength, which is his likability. The Republican campaign can be considered to be hypocritical in its stance against the comments and policies of the Obama administration. When similar actions to Obama’s or Biden’s were done by members of the Republican party such as Herman Cain, there were no condemnations or comments from the ranks of the party but when the members of the Obama administration did the very same things, they were heavily criticized by the Republicans. This shows that the Republicans are selective in what they perceive to be the wrong policies, keeping quiet when it is one of their own, and making unsubstantiated comments when it is a member of a rival party. The call by the Romney campaign to stop any personal attacks during the remaining period of campaigns can be considered ironical because of the fact that it is the one which concentrated more on these personal attacks.

http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/16/blow-the-electoral-art-of-war/

Anglo-Saxon Heritage, Multicultural Future by Charles M. Blow

An article on The Daily Telegraph in July quoted and advisor to Mitt Romney as saying that the special relationship between Britain and the United States existed mainly because of a shared Anglo-Saxon heritage and that the current administration does not appreciate it. This remark can be taken by some to be extremely racist because only a minority of Americans identifies their ancestry to be English. Such comments from an advisor to a presidential candidate may clearly display the real attitudes of that particular candidate and the negative influences that will be a part of his administration. The Romney campaign did not completely deny or retract that particular statement nor did they make an apology for it. This is not the first time that negative influences have appeared to distort the Republican campaign. One of the staunchest supporters of Mitt Romney is the business entrepreneur Donald Trump who has appeared on record saying that President Obama is not an American citizen and that he was not even born in the United States. Such matters have already been dealt with during the previous election campaigns and also when the President displayed his birth certificate to prove his American birth and citizenship. However, Trump has continued to pursue this line of attack against the President without considering how much his statements are hurting the Romney campaign. Romney has not attempted to break or to distance himself from his relationship with Trump and many may assume that Trump’s comments may be what Romney considers to be the truth. It is not advisable for Romney to continue keeping people with little constructive comments around him if he wishes to step into the White House.

http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/25/anglo-saxon-heritage-multicultural-future/

Voter Suppression and Political Polls by Charles M. Blow

Polls are used to determine the trend which voters are most likely to follow during an election but these polls are becoming insignificant due to the new voter registration laws which are being put in place especially in vote swinging states such as Pennsylvania. Many likely voters in the swing states intend to vote for President Obama but it is these who are most likely to be excluded from the voting roles due to their ineligibility to vote under the new laws. Both presidential candidates have made numerous visits to swing states in an attempt to get a larger share of votes within these states than their opponents. Moreover, some governors, especially in Florida, have made it harder for former felons to vote and since most of these ex-felons are either of Latino or African American descent who tend to vote Democrat, it means that Obama will most likely lose crucial votes in these states. It is not known exactly how many voters are aware of these new electoral rules due to the fact that not many people follow news about the upcoming elections and the changes which have been made to electoral laws. It is suspected that many people who are expected to vote for their preferred candidates (in this case President Obama) might be turned away due to the fact of their ineligibility. The new election laws have been pushed by Republicans in order to suppress the ability of Democratic voters to vote in large numbers, thus ensuring Republican victories in these states.

 http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/voter-suppression-and-political-polls/

From Victim to Vicious by Charles M. Blow

Charles Blow states that the Mitt Romney campaign had adopted the stance of being victims of vicious attacks from the Obama campaign team. This is despite the fact that the Romney team has continuously led a smear campaign against Obama stating his weakness in matters of policy as well as attacking him personally concerning deviant events in his past which he has confessed to and regrets. Furthermore, it is ironical that the Romney campaign is making such claims and is behaving like a victim when in fact, it is they who have made vicious attacks against Obama and his administration. This has been a new attempt to discredit the Obama campaign by playing the victim because all other attacks against Obama, whether personal or political, seem to have failed so far. It is quite possible that Romney is attempting to divert attention from the weak points of his campaign such as his unwillingness to make information about his tax returns public, among others. These claims by Romney may just work against his favor especially considering that he is accusing a relatively popular president of making vicious attacks against him. This might not go very well with the public because of the fact that Obama’s controversial issues have already been dealt with and accepted by the public during the previous elections and raising these issues further will only help the Obama campaign. Recent polls asking who had better personal character to assume the presidency showed that Obama would more likely be elected than Romney. Furthermore, Romney’s complete refusal to reveal his income tax returns may lead to the continued distrust of the electorate and ruin his chances of getting elected.

http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/from-victim-to-vicious/

There is no hope of doing perfect research

Research is the investigation of new and existing knowledge in order to confirm known facts as well as to develop them further whenever possible. It can also be used to establish new facts based either on old knowledge or newly discovered knowledge. The perfect research is very hard to achieve and very rare. However, it is possible to achieve it depending on the task which is being investigated at the time. If the task is direct and based on already established and undisputed facts, then the perfect research is possible. In spite of this, the achievement of the perfect research tends to be marred when researchers come up with different interpretations for an established fact mostly due to bias or in an attempt to make their research conform to mainstream ideas.

Warren, in his book History and the Historians (p.65), when commenting on Leopold Von Ranke’s influence in the writing of historical research states:

I have suggested that Ranke’s writing of History is more complex than our original picture of him as the would-be scientific/impartial prober of archives and historical technician. However, it is clear that Ranke’s fellow historians frequently misunderstood and simplified his position.

The researchers that came after Ranke and considered themselves to be of the Rankean school tended to adapt or distort his research methods to suit their personal agendas or political circumstances. This in my opinion casts doubt on the perfection of their researches.

One would be tempted to agree with the statement that there is no hope of doing perfect research because of the different styles or ways of thinking of different researchers. Researchers, even when working on the same topic or subject, hardly ever come to the same conclusions. Elmes, Kantowitz, and Roediger in their book Research Methods in Psychology (p.12), state that questions derive from actual research and it is therefore apparent that even experts do not conduct perfect research. Furthermore, a researcher may be influenced by his ideology or school of thought. If, for example, he were a Marxist historian writing a political history, his work would most likely be very influenced by his ideological stance. Therefore, Marxist and non-Marxist researchers would end up with totally different conclusions to the same problem. The use of secondary sources during research tends to expose the researcher to the prejudices or biases of the authors of the sources which at times are very difficult to view objectively. The researcher ends up being blindly led by the opinions of his sources and this eventually distorts his conclusions leading to an imperfect research.

Moreover, an idea or an opinion which is considered fact today may not necessarily be a fact in the future. I suggest that a perfect research should be able to withstand the test of time and retain its basic truths. This is rarely the case considering that man evolves and opinions change over time. A mere two centuries ago, it was a common belief worldwide that man and all the other creatures on earth were created by a divine being over seven days. The coming of Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution changed all that (mostly in academic circles) and it is now considered fact that all creatures evolved from more primitive forms to what they are today. What remains to be seen is whether the theory of evolution will remain a fact tomorrow or whether new research will reveal it to be irrelevant.

It is my belief that the perfect research is possible but this can only be achieved if its conclusions are beyond reproach by the critics within the field in which the research is being conducted. The level of perfection of a research can also be determined based on whether the research is simple or not. If it is simple then the research would be faultless or perfect because the answers to the research question or problem can easily be gotten. For example, if one wanted to assemble a new desktop computer and had no prior knowledge of how to do it correctly, all he would have to do would be to read the user manual that came with the computer and he would get the information instantly. On the other hand, if the United Nations wanted to know whether sanctions would work on a ‘rogue’ state, a research carried out on this would not give a definite answer because it is yet to be proven that sanctions are completely effective.

In conclusion, to achieve a perfect research especially in a field that has no definite result is very difficult and the best a researcher can do is to try to aim for a result that is as close as possible to perfect. The question that arises from the former statement is this; how does the researcher define the ideal or perfect result? I believe that the researcher should have the freedom to choose to the best of his knowledge what he believes to be the ideal. In the end, no opinion or result especially of a new research can be termed perfect simply because there are those who would find it perfect while there are others who would find it otherwise. Not everyone would be satisfied by the results hence the need for new researches in the same areas of study. These researches lead to my belief that there indeed is hope of doing perfect research because this is usually achieved through many trials and errors.

References

Elmes, D.G., Kantowitz, B.H., & Roediger, H.L. (2005). Research Methods in Psychology. Stamford. Cengage Learning.

Warren, J., (1999). History and the Historians. London: Hodder Murray.