Decolonizing Political Thought

In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in a wave of decolonization in a diversity of disciplines, especially in the social sciences. The latter has especially been the case with political thought, which has come to involve an increase in the level of self-conscious rethinking, and reorientation of the subject with its previous complicity with the project of colonialism and the advancement of Eurocentric thought. This process has become extremely important when it comes to seeking to ensure that there is the advancement of a situation where the political thought of the contemporary world is updated to reflect its current realities. While the process has not been uniform across the disciplines, it is pertinent to consider that when it comes to political thought, the decolonization process is still one that has a long way to go before it is complete. In this paper, there is an analysis of the process of the decolonization of political thought, with specific reference to Burke, Bentham, Kant and Hegel, who have played a significant role when it comes to the Anglo-American political philosophy.

One of the most fundamental aspects of the decolonization of political thought is that it is aimed at making sure that there is the facilitation of self-rule by indigenous peoples. Mainstream political thought in the contemporary world has come to be viewed as being western dominated in such a way that has promoted imperialistic ideals that have led to the justification of the oppressions of peoples not native to the western world (Simpson, 2004). While political theory is for the most part concerned with the issue of government and how people are governed, the current western-dominated political theory is believed to legitimize the process of colonization, which involves the promotion of the superiority of European societies over all others. Hegel, for example, suggests that freedom can only be recognized and practiced in classical, Christian and modern Europe, and that indigenous people across the world can only achieve this objective through submitting to European domination (Stone, 2017). Under such circumstances, political theory has come to be heavily aligned with the process of colonization; hence the need to make sure that there is the promotion of means through which to decolonize political theories. Therefore, western political thought has had an influence in the legitimization of a Eurocentric mindset not only in the past, but it is a process that continues to this day. It has ensured that there is the development of theories of government that essentially involve the process of either accommodation or extinguishment that considerably enhances Eurocentric political thought.

The process of decolonization is necessary because it ensures that colonized peoples are included in the institutions of power. The latter was an idea that was advanced by Burke, who sought to ensure that there was the promotion of the rights of indigenous people through a study of instances of oppression in India (Bolton, 2005). The design of this process is one that seeks to make sure that there is the promotion of both the interests of the colonizer and the colonized so that their political cultures can be viewed based on their diversity rather than relying only on a single dominant theory, in this case the Eurocentric one. This is a process where the colonized are able to successfully undertake to contest the circumstances of their oppression in such a way that considerably enhances their political thought as opposed to the Eurocentric one. Bentham is one of the philosophers who promoted an anti-imperialist agenda; going against the popular conception of colonialism that was prevalent in the 18^th and 19^th centuries (Schultz, 2007). Therefore, when it comes to the process of decolonizing political thought, it is essential to consider that it is one that seeks to develop new philosophies that place an emphasis on politics and government. It explores the challenges that have continued to be faced in recent years in the process of creating a new polity that is aimed to be more just in a manner that makes it possible for those who have been colonized to achieve political freedom. These considerations are connected with a diversity of developments in political theory, which include the politics of entitlement and identity, the postcolonial theory, and the critical race theory. These theories are extremely important when it comes to the development of an analysis concerning the changes that have taken place in political thought over the decades and the new assumptions and ideas that are coming up to explain them (Mills, 2014b, p. 3). They further seek to bring an end to racialized interests and instead promote a view of political equality that not only makes it possible for individuals in society to accept, but also reflect on their colonial past and how it affected the various parties involved.

It is noteworthy that efforts have been made to make sure that there is the decolonization of political thought, and these have for the most part followed a couple of themes. The first of these is that there is the need to unmask the oppressive assumptions that have for the most part historically justified colonization and imperialism in western political theory (Robinson, 2012). Another theme is that there is need to ensure that there is the proposal of new ways of thinking about politics that has the potential of facilitating indigenous self-determination (Widdowson, 2013). The first theme has been extremely influential in the development of the critical race theory, which promotes the idea, that there is need to bring about the racialization of political theory in such a way that it is unloaded and contextualized in ways that show the considerable racialized interests. The latter are involved in defining the concept of what it means to have a good life or community. It is ironical that one of the most popular assumptions of political theory that has done the most to promote colonization is the enlightenment idea of universality. It is maintained that the production of whiteness is a process that cannot be separated from that of humanity because it aims at bringing about the concept of autonomy, freedom, progress, and rationality, which are not believed to be possessed by indigenous peoples (Sardar, 1999). The concept of universalism can be assumed to have come about mainly because those who theorized it were often involved in slavery and the oppression of indigenous peoples.

Consequently, despite the presence of modern political theory such as liberalism, which promotes the need for universal human rights, there seems to have been a failure in the promotion of means through which to grant the same rights to indigenous peoples (Tully, 2000). There has been a failure to guarantee that indigenous people are able to receive entitlements such as equality before the law and both individual and collective freedom; a sign that western political thought is still dominated by its colonial past and the need to ensure that the process of decolonization is vigorously undertaken. Some of the most important philosophers of the enlightenment were individuals that championed liberty and equality within a political establishment, yet seem to have continued to promote the idea of colonization to such an extent that they racialized the process of colonization and the oppression of indigenous people (Smith, 2012; Widdowson, 2013). There was the promotion of the idea that indigenous peoples were essentially lesser beings and had to be dominated by the Europeans because the latter had proven their ability to achieve mastery over land and members of individuals that were perceived to be from lesser human races. The so-called lesser races were therefore condemned to perpetually serve the Europeans because of the belief that they did not possess the same capabilities to dominate. Therefore, the colonial enterprise was justified by the ideas of European racial superiority and the creation of idea of the other in order to show the considerable inferiority and weakness of indigenous people (Hampton, Bourassa, & McKay-McNab, 2004); hence the need for the civilizing influence of European colonialism.

Thus, current political thought can be considered to have been developed by individuals who had accepted an oppressive political process in their own lives. Under such circumstances, political thought can be considered to be a promoter of colonial knowledge because it acts as an agent of colonialism. The political theory that was developed during the age of enlightenment and which are still very popular today came about during a period of European colonialism. Because of this, this theory was greatly influenced by the European experience of the colonial administration, imperial rivalries, and the desire to build empires both at home and abroad. For example, Kant promotes the idea that only the white race has the capacity to have all the incentives and talents in itself (Ypi, 2014). Therefore, political thought ended up absorbing ideals that for the most part promoted the justification of colonization because the latter was a process that was popular in the period. The circumstances that were created and continue to dominate political thought are based on the assumption of the westerner, on one hand, and the other, who include all non-Europeans. Europeans were for the most part considered to be the reflection of humanity in such a way that ensured that there was the justification of the colonization and subjugation of indigenous peoples. The latter were often dehumanized because of the idea that they could not reach the same level of political and social sophistication as their European counterparts; meaning that they were essentially sub-human and Europeans had the right to dominate them. The strength of arms is considered an essential aspect of political theory, and military power is often promoted as a justification for dominance and expropriation.

The contemporary political theory has for the most part been influenced by colonialism in such a way that ensures that there is the promotion of the concept of individualism. Individualism, rather than recognition of the unique aspects of indigenous populations, has ended up leading to the establishment of means through which colonial thought has continued to be espoused (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005). The development of universal individual rights fails to consider that there is a need to ensure that there is the recognition of the rights of indigenous people. This is especially the case when it comes to the development of means through which there is the use of Eurocentric ideals that make it difficult for an understanding of indigenous political thought to be undertaken. The concept of indigineity is one that has to be understood in the process of decolonizing political thought (Smith, 2012). This is because it is a concept that preceded colonialism and because of this, it has to be respected by political scholars. Therefore, it is necessary to make sure that there is the promotion of means through which to enhance the contributions of indigenous people in their own political thought through a process that essentially advocates for the abandonment of the colonial aspects of political thought. There has to be a procedure where decolonization takes on a robust approach to equality in such a way that rather than promoting a Eurocentric viewpoint, it is necessary to build up an approach where there is the achievement of the goal of bringing about an understanding of political thought that overcomes racial prejudices and instead advances the need for passing judgment based on character.

Modern political theory has been influenced by a Eurocentric viewpoint to such an extent that it has become fundamentally hostile to indigenous rights. It reduced the distinctive rights that these individuals possess in a way that ensures that there is a failure to consider their contributions to the construction of their own societies (Lander, 2000). Furthermore, there is the promotion of the idea that indigenous people do not have the capacity to advance their political establishments in such a way that matches the western ones. It is pertinent to consider that the western democratic model is looked upon as the idea when it comes to determining the social and political advancement of society. Therefore, because a majority of countries that are led by indigenous people have not followed the western model, or have followed it nominally, this model is still considered to be the ideal (Moghadam, 1989). Political structures are often formed based on the environment within which the exist; meaning that there is need to make sure that before a Eurocentric view is imposed on indigenous political establishments, there is a process where there is an assessment of the reasons behind such moves. The decolonization of modern political thought can therefore be considered extremely fundamental when it comes to recognizing the manner through which the process of achieving justice and equality in society (Walsh, 2007). It allows for an end to the disregard for the indigenous contributions, and creates political thought that ceases to have the negative influences of colonialism.

The process of decolonizing political thought has to be undertaken in such a way that makes it possible to overcome its negative aspects. For example, liberal political theory suggests that an individual is one that is not only propertied, but also heterosexual, in control of his emotions, and of appropriate lineage. It enhances the Eurocentric idea of whiteness in such a way that it comes to symbolize such characteristics as moderation, self-control and reason. This idea ends up putting the view concerning indigenous people at an extremely negative light because these people come to be viewed as inferior (Mills, 2014a). The concept of racial inferiority was developed during the colonial period in a bid to promote imperial adventures. European powers based their reputations on the number of colonies that they possessed; essentially advancing the need to subjugate indigenous people in order to prove their superiority. The colonial competition between European powers was behind the creation of concepts of indigenous inferiority that have continued to linger in contemporary political thought. Indigenous people are considered to be too emotional to be effective political actors and this has been legitimized in political thought through the normalization of racist exclusion when it comes to the way that scholars handle indigenous political affairs (Godrej, 2008). Therefore, there is the need to make sure that there is the promotion of means through which political thought is decolonized through placing an emphasis on the failures of some of the prevalent theories. The latter have been considerably influenced by Eurocentric ideas that have failed to make sure that there is a balanced view of political discourse.

In conclusion, the ideas promoted by Bentham and Burke can be considered to be essential for the development of a decolonized political thought. This is in opposition to the influence that Hegel and Kant have had on the liberal political thought in the contemporary world, which have for the most part not only become dominant, but also brought about the continued advancement of Eurocentric political theories. While Bentham and Burke seek to promote the creation of an environment where there is greater equality, Hegel and Kant advance the idea that the members of the different races are fundamentally different, with Europeans being superior while the rest are inferior. It is because of the latter that there is need to make sure that there is the achievement of the goal of decolonizing political thought.

How climate change can have unequal effects on different sectors of the population

Climate change is one of the most pertinent issues in the contemporary world and this is to such an extent that it has come to affect the way of life of individuals across the planet. It has brought about a situation where there is unequal development within the population to such an extent that while some individuals have ended up being able to survive the changes that are taking place, most others have not been so fortunate, with a considerable part of the human population feeling the adverse effects of climate change directly (Carleton & Hsiang, 2016). Government policies have also come to have an effect on the unequal development of individuals in society because of climate change. The latter has brought about the result that while those with close political and economic connections have been able to make sure that they continue to prosper despite the climatic circumstances, most of the population, which includes small farmers in the rural areas and the urban poor have been the worst hit (Eriksen, Nightingale, & Eakin, 2015). It is therefore essential to consider the diverse effects of climate change on the human population, especially considering the massive differences in effects that have taken place. This paper seeks to analyze the way that climate change can have unequal effects on different sectors of the population, with specific reference to India and Egypt, countries whose populations are at the forefront of the effects of global warming.

It is essential to note that climate change has already begun to exert its pressure on the human population. While this may be the case, there are individuals in society who have the resources that they need to cope with the changes in climate whole others do not. There has been an increase in the level of vulnerability especially among the poor, because these individuals do not have the resources that they need to ensure that they are able to survive the adverse effects of climate change (Dilling, Daly, Travis, Wilhelmi, & Klein, 2015). In addition, these individuals have been forced into a situation where they are not able to shift from the areas where they are worst affected to better areas where they can be able to improve their life circumstances. One of the most pertinent areas which have been negatively affected by climate change and is especially vulnerable is in Egypt, specifically the site known as the Mubarak Project villages, which are located on the shores of the Mediterranean (Malm & Esmailian, 2013). The soil of these villages has begun to undergo a considerable amount of salinization to such an extent that it is increasingly becoming uninhabitable for the farmers in the area. The farmers in the area have been forced into a situation where they have to apply sand on their fields in order to elevate them in such a way that they are above the salty water table. Despite these efforts, only the most resources are able to ensure that they achieve this goal because most of the other farmers in the area do not have the resources to apply sand to their fields. Under the Mubarak regime, there was a process of accumulation through dispossession to such an extent that some individuals in society ended up being pushed to the frontline of climate change. These individuals, as has been seen above, were moved to the Mubarak Project villages and initially viewed it as an opportunity to improve their lives (Malm & Esmailian, 2013). However, the latter turned out not to be the case because as a result of climate change, they ended up in a situation where they were essentially denied the resources to stay in the region where they had been moved. They could no longer return to their previous holdings because they had already been taken over by government and those close to it, resulting in their vulnerability and dispossession because of climate change.

The example of the Mubarak Project villages is an essential one when it comes to the advancement of the argument that there are unequal effects on different parts of the population because of climate change. The individuals that are most likely to suffer the most are the small farmers, who, because of their vulnerability, end up not having the resources that they need to ensure that they comfortably mitigate the effects of climate change. Small farmers in the contemporary world already struggle in order to ensure that they not only get a fair price for their crops, but also safeguard themselves against the weather and pests (Harvey et al., 2014). Furthermore, they also have to contend with large-scale farmers and monoculture agricultural systems and are often barely able to remain in business. Under such circumstances, the effects of climate change have begun to make matters worse for such farmers because there has been a major shift when it comes to the climate and agricultural zones. There have also been changes to production patterns because of an increase in temperatures, and an extreme change to precipitation patterns that has essentially come to put a threat to crops. These upsets are increasingly beginning to take away the livelihoods of small farmers and their families because they not only lose their main source of income, but also their entire communities because they are no longer able to make sure that they sell their crops in order to make a living (Altieri & Nicholls, 2017). The development of such a scenario should not be underestimated because it is one that has the potential of leading to a threat to food supplies and security, because despite their relatively smaller contributions, small farmers are still an integral part of the society. Therefore, a reduction to their contributions to the global food supply has the potential of leading to an increase in volatility when it comes to food prices across the world.

This argument is considerably enhanced through examples of the way that there has been an increase of human insecurity. The latter insecurity can be seen from the semi-arid Andhra Pradesh, in the south of India (Taylor, 2013). There is a considerable sense of vulnerability for households that has been brought about by changes to the climate, to such an extent that it has brought about an uneven control over such productive assets as land and water as well as credit and labor. It is therefore essential to consider the effects that climate change has brought about in this society because most of the individuals involved tend to be subordinate groups that have been forced into relations that are socially, economically, and politically unequal. There has been a considerable increase in the level of insecurity when it comes to agrarian life in the Andhra Pradesh region, which has essentially been developed along hierarchical lines (Taylor, 2013). Subordinate groups, which include small farmers, have come to rely heavily on access to assets that are controlled by dominant groups, in order to ensure that they effectively pursue their livelihoods. Under such circumstances, it has become more difficult for these individuals to make sure that they take advantage of opportunities presented to them because even though they may own some land, the cannot utilize it effectively because climate change has for the most part made it more difficult for them to achieve success (Tucker et al., 2015). They cannot be able to rise above their relative poverty because climate change has created a stratified human landscape because the risks and opportunities that have been brought about by changes to the climate have become unequally distributed. It has become pertinent to consider that there is need to consider that the massive inequalities in the distribution of power in society have further been exacerbated by the manner through which their vulnerability of small farmers has been used to further the security of others in society (Isakson, 2015). The latter case is an example of the limits that public policies have when it comes to the facilitation of sustainable adaptation to climate change.

The cases of the Mubarak Project villages and Andhra Pradesh are extremely important because they show that climate change will most likely adversely affect the rural poor. More than a billion people in the contemporary world live in poverty and are dependent on the surrounding natural resources in order to survive (Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, & Amoateng, 2015). The advent of climate change has proven that it would be an extremely difficult task for poverty and inequality to be eradicated because it involves a situation where disadvantaged groups do not have the resources that they need to ensure that they cope with its effects. It has forced a situation where society has become more stratified, to such an extent that it is extremely difficult for the parties involved to make sure that they are not only able to achieve a mitigation to climate change, but also the promotion of greater equality. Small farmers are the ones who are most at risk because climate change has brought with it a myriad of issues, including flooding and drought, which have ended up becoming problematic for the individuals involved (Eriksen & O'Brien, 2007). Small scale farmers are the ones who are most affected by these new problems because they may be forced to move in order to survive. However, their means of making a livelihood will essentially have been taken away; leading to an increase in the global poverty levels. Most of these individuals might be forced to move into urban areas to find work, and in the process, because of their poverty, it is likely that they will not only live in poorer areas, but also have to endure most of the ailments that are associated with heat, because of global warming.

The latter can be considered extremely pertinent because it involves a situation where there will be an unequal capacity for adaptation. The two cases above show that it is developing countries, which have not made any significant contributions to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, are at a greater disadvantage when it comes to dealing with climate change (Hertel & Lobell, 2014). It is pertinent to note that both Egypt and India are developing countries, which still have to struggle in order to ensure that they have the necessary infrastructure and technological resources for their people because of the lack of financial resources. The lack of these resources is a hindrance for these countries when it comes to their ability to adapt to climate change. They have high rates of poverty and income inequality, and the financial resources that they do have, which is not often a lot, tend to be pushed towards mitigating these problems, which leads to a situation where not much can be spared to ensure that there is the advancement of the interests of the poor, who are most vulnerable to climate change. The poverty levels in these countries have been further exacerbated by climate change and this is a situation which has the potential of ending up leading to the deterioration of the lives and livelihoods of the poor, especially small farmers with little resources, who have to contend with climate change with very few viable options open to them (Burgess, Deschenes, Donaldson, & Greenstone, 2014). The case of the Mubarak Project villages is a prime example of the way that climate change has come to affect the poor while those with the resources have the ability to overcome the problems that are associated with this change. The ability of the latter to elevate their fields using sand to avoid salinization while their counterparts are not able to do so shows that climate change has for the most part contributed to the considerable stratification of society due to its unequal effects.

Furthermore, in the case of Andhra Pradesh, the agrarian community has ended up being in a situation where despite the disparities in power relations, initiatives by government have been taken to ensure that there is an improvement in the lives of the population. One such initiative is the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which has sought to make sure that there is a reduction of the influence of power relations that have an adverse effect on the rural poor (Taylor, 2013). This piece of legislation has sought to make sure that there is the promotion of means through which the poor, who have often been held back by lower wages, are provided with the security that they need to not only have higher wages, but also have a safety net. This safety net is directed at the rural households that have been affected by underdevelopment and distress migration. It has ensured that there is the establishment of rules that helps to promote the interests of the rural poor in agrarian communities in such a way that has seen an increase in wages while at the same time promoting a reduction of the necessity of getting into dependency relations. The effects of climate change have made it imperative for initiatives such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which have the positive effect of helping vulnerable rural households survive. The latter effect is essential for these households, especially those containing children and the elderly, who are most susceptible to health concerning that, are associated with changes to the climate. Among the most significant health problems that these individuals are vulnerable to include malnutrition due to a reduction in food supply, and heat-related ailments; meaning that more has to be done to prevent the advancement of such ailments.

It is also essential to note that because of climate change, many communities will be forced to move in order to ensure that they survive. These communities are those that do not have the resources to ensure that they survive the negative effects of climate change such as rising sea levels, extreme drought, and extreme rainfall (Sugden et al., 2014). Under such circumstances, there is need to consider that because they do not have the resources that they need to survive climate change, especially small farmers and the poor, the way of life of these individuals that has existed for centuries is likely to be brought to an end (Carr & Thompson, 2014). Individuals who are forced to relocate are most likely to end up moving to urban areas in a bid to seek work, resulting in not only an increase in poverty, but also the establishment or expansion of slums because these individuals will not have the resources that they need to survive. However, those with resources are most likely to be able to adapt to climate change in their own environments through the use of a diversity of technologies that they can make use of to bring about the mitigation of the effects of changes to the climate.

In conclusion, climate change has led to significant unequal effects in different sectors of the population. The discussion above has sought to make a study of the way that these effects have ended up influencing different sectors of the population through an analysis of the Mubarak Project villages in Egypt, and Andhra Pradesh in India. These cases have shown that it is the poorest and those lacking the resources who are most likely to suffer from climate change; a situation that their more well off counterparts do not have to undergo because they have the resources that are needed to survive.

The Cuban Revolution and Gender

A happy Cuban woman

         The revolution has played an immense part in the development of the new man and woman in the workplace. This has allowed people to become aware that they need to treat each other well. Moreover, it has enabled all workers to concentrate more on service for the greater good of all Cubans, than to work for personal gain. One of the firmest principles which the revolution has instilled in the workplace is that working for the people of Cuba is the most valuable thing; it is what will determine whether the revolution is eventually judged as being either a success or a failure.

       The revolution has encouraged the equal opportunity among men and women in the place of work. This is because it has ensured that these two genders have equal capabilities to function at work. There is no task which is designated to one gender that cannot be undertaken by the other. Furthermore, it has ensured that there is a balance between the employment of men and women in the workplace, hence ensuring that gender balance has been achieved. Cuba is the only state in the world to achieve an almost perfect gender balance, and all this is due to the revolution.

The real Cuba

           The most desirable society that can be created in Cuba is one where all people within it are equal, with nobody being either above or beneath the other. Moreover, there should be gender balance in government so that it is no longer just dominated by men. In addition, a society which is just should be created, where everybody is allowed to do what they want so long as what they do does not destroy the aims of the revolution. However, the creation of such a society cannot be achieved unless several threats are dealt with swiftly. One of these is the beginning of a highly paternalistic culture in the society, where one cannot go ahead in life unless he or she is sponsored by somebody powerful in society. The second threat is the temptation to slowly introduce capitalistic features into the country in order to conform to the world economy. This is extremely dangerous because so far, the revolution has been a success and it can, therefore, not be merged with corrupting elements.

More of the real Cuba

           The United States has, from the very beginning of the revolution, been the biggest enemy of Cuba. It has, time and time again, tried to overthrow the revolution and replace it with a corrupt capitalistic system like the one which existed before. This state is, therefore, also the biggest threat to the achievement of life which the new order would bring to the people of Cuba. There is a possibility that the United States may foment revolt against the revolution by promising a few Cubans a better life to the one which they currently have. This, of course, is American propaganda, because there is a larger percentage of people with low standards of living in that country than in Cuba. It is exceedingly urgent for the government and people of Cuba to be wary of such temptations because to submit to them would make all the sacrifices made for the revolution to be useless.